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The  Music  Lover's  Library 


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■  •  •  •       t 


GIOVANNI  FlERLUIGl 

DA  PALESTRINA 

I'H  1>'  ('  ri'F,     I)  !.•  1,1,  \    ,N1  I'N  1('.\ 


The  Music  Love/s  Library 


Choirs  and  Choral 
Music 


By 

Arthur  Mees 

Former  Conductor  of  the  Cincinnati  May  Festival  Chorus; 

Conductor  of  the  New  York  Mendelssohn  Glee  Club, 

of  the  Albany  Music  Festival  Association,  Etc. 


With  Portraits 


Charles    Scribner's    Sons 
New  York  ::  ::  ::  1901 


MUSI 


Copyright,  1901,  by 
Charles  Scribner*s  Sons 


....  .J  •    • 


Trow  Directory 

Printing  and  Bookbinding  Company 

New  York 


r MUSIC  LIBRARY^ 
UNIVERSITY         I 


M4 


TO 

MY   WIFE 


2^i4r)'^^ 


Preface 

As  chorus  singing  is  the  sphere  of  public 
musical  activity  which  now  belongs  legiti- 
mately to  amateurs,  and  choral  music  the  class 
of  music  for  the  performance  of  which  the  pub- 
lic is  almost  entirely  dependent  on  amateurs, 
the  question  as  to  how  chorus  singing  and 
choral  music  came  to  be  what  they  are  must 
be  of  general  interest.  To  throw  light  on  this 
subject  is  the  purpose  of  this  book.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  a  compendium  for  the  professional,  but 
a  book  for  the  amateur  which  will  tell  him 
something  about  the  beginnings  and  the  course 
of  development  of  chorus  singing;  something 
about  the  origin  of  choirs,  their  constitution, 
and  the  nature  of  their  activity  at  different  pe- 
riods ;  something  about  the  history  of  the  most 
important  choral  forms,  particularly  the  Mys- 
tery and  the  Oratorio,  about  their  essential 
characteristics,  and  about  the  first  and  other 
notable  performances  of  the   best   known  of 


Preface 


them.  In  the  chapter  devoted  to  choral  culture 
in  America  will  be  found  a  review  of  the  con- 
ditions which  led  up  to  the  organization  of 
singing  societies  in  this  country,  and  of  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  choral  institutions 
that  were  conspicuously  instrumental  in  ele- 
vating the  standard  of  chorus  singing  were  es- 
tablished. The  last  chapter  is  devoted  to  some 
observations  on  the  qualities  necessary  to  the 
efficient  chorus  singer  and  chorus  conductor 
and  on  the  general  principles  which,  according 
to  recognized  authorities,  should  be  observed 
in  order  to  make  choral  performances  what 
they  ought  to  be. 

If,  in  addition  to  giving  information  not  with- 
in easy  reach,  this  book — the  first  of  its  kind  so 
far  as  the  author  knows — should  succeed  in 
demonstrating  how  puissant  a  factor  in  shap- 
ing the  course  of  musical  progress  chorus  sing- 
ing has  been  in  the  past,  and  how  necessary  it 
is  to  the  dissemination  of  sound  musical  taste 
at  the  present  time,  the  author's  purpose  will 
be  fully  realized. 


Contents 

Page 

I.  Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks  ....  3 

II.  In  the  Early  Christian  Church      ....  20 

III.  In  the  Mediaeval  Church 44 

IV.  After  the  Reformation 67 

V.  The  Mystery.    Bach .  92 

VI.  The  Oratorio.    Handel 113 

VII.  Other  Choral  Forms 139 

VIII.  Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany  and 

England 161 

IX.  Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America     .    .186 

X.  The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor    .212 

Index .231 


Portraits 


Palestrina         .... 

.     Frontispiece 

Purcell     ..... 

FACING 
PAGE 

.        .        .      76 

Bach        .               .       . 

.     102 

Handel 

.     120 

Mendelssohn     .... 

.     146 

Fasch       .        . 

.        .     166 

Carl  Zerrahn    .... 

.        .        .     198 

Leopold  Damrosch    . 

.    202 

choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

WHILE  choral  music  was  undoubtedly 
practised  among  the  barbarous  and  un- 
civilised peoples  from  time  immemorial  in  con- 
nection with  the  dance  as  an  essential  element 
of  their  religious  ceremonies,  it  is  to  the  music 
of  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks,  the  inheritors  of 
the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  theories,  that  the 
tone-art  of  the  early  Christians,  out  of  which 
grew  the  tone-art  of  to-day,  is  directly  trace- 
able. 

The  highly  imaginative  and  poetical  spirit 
of  the  Hebrews,  as  illustrated  in  the  eloquent 
epics  and  lyrics  of  the  Bible,  could  not  but 
seek  vent  in  music,  the  art  most  intimately  in 
accord  with  such  a  spirit  and  best  adapted  to 
satisfy  it.  It  is  not  surprising  therefore  that  the 
Hebrew  tribes  even  during  the  nomadic  exist- 
ence which  they  led  for  many  centuries — an 
existence  ill  calculated  to  encourage  artistic 
activity — should  have  adopted  and  made  ser- 
viceable to  their  own  purposes  such  features 

3 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


as  appealed  to  them  in  the  music  of  the  peoples 
with  which  they  came  into  contact :  the  Assy- 
rians and  Egyptians.  As  national  conscious- 
ness developed  with  concentration  and  a  more 
settled  mode  of  life,  the  Hebrews  found  leisure 
to  transform  and  elaborate  these  elements  in 
accordance  with  their  taste  and  the  require- 
ments of  their  religious  observances,  which 
they  delighted  in  investing  with  all  possible 
grandeur  and  impressiveness.  To  this  end  the 
Levitic  and  prophet  schools  were  instituted,  in 
which  young  men  were  instructed  in  arts  and 
sciences,  music  and  poetry,  in  order  to  be  fitted 
for  the  duties  which  the  state  and  the  church 
might  demand  of  them.  In  these  schools 
bodies  of  instrumentalists  and  vocalists  were 
formed  and  made  conversant  with  the  poetic 
and  musical  traditions,  while  those  who  gave 
evidences  of  the  creative  faculty  were  entrusted 
with  the  task  of  composing  new  poems  and 
melodies  as  occasion  required. 

The  factors  employed  in  the  worship  of  the 
Hebrews  were,  expressed  in  current  terms, 
soloists,  selected  choruses  of  men  and  women, 
a  grand  chorus  of  the  people,  and  an  orchestra. 
That  this  view  is  not  a  fanciful  one  is  proven 
by  the  biblical  record  and  the  fact  that  it  is  in 
perfect  accord  with  the  spirit  and  the  structure 
of  Hebrew  poetry.     The  song  of  triumph  of 

4 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

Moses  and  Miriam  after  the  destruction  of 
Pharaoh  and  his  host  evidently  enlisted  the  co- 
operation of  such  forces.  The  choirs  chanted 
or  sang  antiphonally,  the  men  responding  to 
the  intonation  of  Moses  and  the  women  to  ^^^ 
that  of  Miriam,  while  the  multitude  from  time 
to  time  joined  in  refrains  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  instruments,  singers  and  players  mov- 
ing about  in  the  measured  steps  of  a  panto- 
mimic dance.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
artistic  merits  of  this  celebration  and  similar 
ones,  it  is  evident  that  the  combination  on  a 
vast  scale  of  music,  poetry,  and  pantomime  was 
calculated  to  produce  a  profound  impression. 

It  remained  for  David,  however,  to  place 
Hebrew  tone-art  on  a  firm  basis.  Possessed 
of  extraordinary  talent  for  poetry  and  music, 
which  had  been  developed  in  the  prophet 
schools,  he  realised  that  by  investing  the  re- 
ligious observances  Avith  pomp  and  magnifi- 
cence he  could  create  a  feeling  of  national 
pride  and  political  power  which  would  prove 
of  inestimable  value  to  the  future  welfare  of  his 
people.  He  himself  instituted  the  ceremonies 
amidst  which  the  ark  was  brought  to  the  tab- 
ernacle prepared  for  it,  and  appointed  trained 
musicians  to  lead  them  and  to  have  a  care  for 
their  proper  performance.  These  ceremonies 
are  described  in  the  First  Book  of  the  Chroni- 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


~y 


cles.  A  precentor  gave  out  the  chants  and 
conducted  the  choir  of  professional  singers, 
which  was  accompanied  by  harpers  and  play- 
ers of  the  psalteries  (probably  a  kind  of  lute, 
the  strings  of  which  were  plucked  with  a 
plectrum).  Three  conductors  kept  the  whole 
body  in  time  and  in  step  by  beating  cymbals 
as  it  executed  the  evolutions  of  a  dance.  The 
trumpeters,  who  constituted  a  special  division, 
punctuated  the  different  strophes  or  verses  of 
the  songs  with  interludes  adapted  to  the  nature 
of  their  instruments.  David  himself  headed  the 
procession  improvising  at  intervals  in  a  rhapso- 
dical manner  words  and  melodies  to  the  tones 
of  his  harp,  the  chorus  replying  with  refrains. 

While  the  preparations  for  building  the  new 
temple  were  in  progress,  David  took  measures 
to  increase  the  forces  upon  whom  the  perform- 
ance of  the  service  depended.  The  total  num- 
ber of  singers  and  instrumentalists  was  raised 
to  four  thousand,  who  were  regularly  instruct- 
ed in  the  music  of  the  ritual.  Of  these  two 
hundred  and  eighty-eight  were  masters  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  music,  and  these  again 
were  subdivided  into  twenty-four  classes,  each 
of  which  was  under  the  leadership  of  one  of 
the  sons  of  the  three  supervising  Levites.  On 
extraordinary  occasions  choruses  of  women 
and  boys  were  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 

6 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

religious  ceremonies,  for  the  knowledge  and 
practice  of  music  were  not  confined  to  those  set 
apart  to  officiate  in  the  temple.  Music  was  the 
common  property  of  all  classes  and  occupied  a 
prominent  place  in  private  as  well  as  in  public 
celebrations.  This  David  sanctioned  and  en- 
couraged by  attaching  to  his  court  a  royal 
chapel,  a  trained  chorus  of  men  and  women. 

Solomon,  David's  son  and  successor,  provided 
even  more  liberally  for  everything  pertaining 
to  the  music  of  the  temple  and  the  royal  house- 
hold, in  which  he  himself  took  an  active  part. 
The  Song  of  Solomon,  which  was  probably 
written  for  performance  by  the  court  singers, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  pastoral  play  imita- 
tive of  a  Hindoo  idyl.  As  dramatic  represen- 
tations, however,  were  forbidden  by  law,  it  may 
have  been  given  as  a  cantata  by  choruses  sing- 
ing antiphonally  to  pantomimic  dances.  That 
the  poem  is  well  adapted  to  such  a  treatment 
Palestrina  illustrated  by  setting  it  to  music  in 
the  shape  of  a  choral  dialogue. 

The  musical  achievements  of  Solomon's  reign 
reached  their  culmination  in  the  services  at  the 
dedication  of  the  newly  built  temple ;  and  on  a 
scale  of  magnificence  difficult  to  conceive  these 
must  have  been  if  the  record  of  Josephus  is  at 
all  trustworthy.  According  to  this  historian 
the  king  commanded  that  for  this  great  event 
7 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


as  well  as  for  permanent  use  thereafter  two 
hundred  thousand  trumpets  and  trombones  be 
constructed,  and  forty  thousand  stringed  in- 
struments, such  as  harps  and  psalteries,  be 
fashioned  of  the  finest  brass,  and  that  for  the 
chorus  of  Levites  two  hundred  thousand  gar- 
ments of  fine  linen  be  made.  While  this  ac- 
count is  undoubtedly  exaggerated  it  goes  to 
prove  that  the  ceremonies  were  of  such  gran- 
deur as  to  give  rise  to  extravagant  estimates. 
The  overpowering  effect  produced  when  "  the 
trumpeters  and  singers  were  as  one  to  make 
one  sound  "  is  eloquently  described  in  II  Chron- 
icles, V.  13  and  14. 

The  temple  service  under  Solomon  marked 
the  acme  of  the  musical  culture  of  the  Hebrews, 
as  Solomon's  reign  marked  that  of  their  polit- 
ical power.  With  the  death  of  this  great  ruler 
the  spirit  of  national  unity  disappeared,  disin- 
tegration set  in,  and  the  religious  ceremonies 
lost  much  of  their  dignity  and  splendor.  A 
last  attempt  to  restore  them  to  their  former 
estate  was  made  by  the  Jews  after  their  return 
to  Jerusalem  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
in  536  B.C.,  when  they  brought  with  them 
a  trained  choir  of  two  hundred  and  forty-five 
men  and  women.  With  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  in  70  A.D.,  the  remnants 
pf  the  Jewish  nation  were  dispersed,  and  what 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

had  been  preserved  by  them  of  their  original 
temple  service  was  given  over  to  the  uncer- 
tainty of  oral  tradition.  Thanks  to  the  tenacity, 
however,  with  which  the  Hebrews  clung  to 
their  religious  ceremonies  and  customs,  the 
scattered  tribes  retained  essential  features  of 
their  sacred  art,  which  left  their  impress  on  the 
church  music  of  the  early  Christians.  This 
appears  to  have  been  the  case  particularly 
with  the  sect  of  the  Therapeutae,  Essene  Jews, 
who  flourished  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alexan- 
dria until  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  chants  and  hymns,  old  and  newly 
composed,  which  they  sang  at  their  great  relig- 
ious festivals  must  have  exerted  a  strong  influ- 
ence on  the  ritual  of  the  Eastern  Church,  for  to 
the  initiative  of  the  Therapeutas  is  attributed 
the  adoption  by  the  Christians  of  antiphonal 
singing,  the  choral  dialogue,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly of  Hebrew  origin,  being  a  natural  result 
of  the  antithetical  character  of  Hebrew  poetry. 
While  little  is  known  regarding  the  musical 
system  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  and  regarding 
the  melodies  of  their  chants  and  hymns,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  lofty  character  of 
Hebrew  music  in  view  of  the  mission  it  was 
made  to  fulfil  and  in  view  of  the  exalted  re- 
ligious enthusiasm  which  permeates  the  poems 
to  which  it  was  wedded.     Although  it  has  been 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


demonstrated,  that  the  accent  marks — not  the 
vowel  points,  which  are  of  much  later  origin — 
served  as  means  of  musical  notation,  the  princi- 
ple of  deciphering  them  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered, and  until  this  has  been  accomplished 
such  ancient  manuscripts  as  are  still  in  exist- 
ence are  of  little  assistance  in  determining  ques- 
tions regarding  Hebrew  music.  Nor  can  reli- 
able conclusions  be  drawn  from  the  services 
as  now  conducted  in  the  synagogues,  the  songs 
or  chants  in  use  in  the  different  countries  of 
Europe,  not  to  speak  of  Asia  and  Africa,  hav- 
ing little  in  common.  Nevertheless  there  are 
traceable  in  most  of  them  certain  intervallic 
progressions,  embellishments,  and  cadences 
which  are  so  characteristic  and  suggestive  of 
Oriental  music  and  are  so  evidently  based  on 
scales  of  their  own  as  to  justify  the  assumption 
that  in  them  some  of  the  elements  of  ancient 
Hebrew  music  have  survived  in  spite  of  the 
unreliability  of  traditional  transmission. 

While  the  music  of  the  Hebrews  was  calcu- 
lated to  impress  by  its  grandeur  and  massive 
power,  that  of  the  Greeks  depended  for  its  ef- 
fect on  refinement  and  perfection  of  detail.  The 
descriptions  of  Hebrew  music  which  have  been 
handed  down,  dwell  principally  on  the  external 
features  of  the  musical  celebrations.    The  trea- 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

tises  on  Greek  music,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
have  been  preserved,  are  of  a  musico-philosophic 
nature  and  concern  themselves  with  the  most 
complicated  problems  in  rhythm,  metre,  scale 
construction,  modes,  and  with  questions  regard- 
ing the  interrelation  of  music,  poetry,  and  his- 
trionics. True  to  their  lofty  views  as  to  the 
mission  of  the  tone-art,  the  Greeks  evolved  in 
the  course  of  time  a  remarkably  intricate  and 
delicately  constructed  musical  system,  fitted  to 
and  corresponding  with  the  forms  of  their  epic, 
lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry,  on  which  it  was 
based. 

In  Greek  choral  music,  associated  as  it  was 
with  religious  festivities,  two  distinct  tenden- 
cies manifested  themselves.  The  first  of  these 
had  its  origin  in  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  was 
national  and  ethical  in  character ;  the  second 
had  for  its  source  the  cult  of  Dionysus,  and  was 
of  an  individual  and  sensual  type.  Within  the 
former  a  large  number  of  choral  forms  devel- 
oped, such  as  hymns  of  praise,  paeans  of  victory, 
prayers  to  Apollo,  hymeneal  songs,  dirges  and 
lamentations;  the  latter  tendency  was  repre- 
sented by  one  form  only  :  the  dithyramb,  which 
Arion  was  supposed  to  have  converted  from  a 
type  of  song  used  in  Bacchic  revels,  into  an 
antistrophic  hymn.  In  this  Greek  tragedy  had 
its  source. 

iz 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


The  festivals  of  Dionysus,  the  god  of  wine, 
were  celebrated  in  the  rural  districts  with  or- 
gies, processions,  and  games  accompanied  by 
dances  to  the  strains  of  cyclic  choric  songs. 
According  to  tradition  Thespis  (600  B.C.)  inter- 
larded the  strophes  of  these  songs  with  the  re- 
cital with  pantomimic  gestures  of  myths  apper- 
taining to  Dionysus.  By  means  of  masks  a 
single  actor  impersonated  the  different  charac- 
ters concerned  in  the  narrative.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  recital  was  provided  with  instru- 
mental accompaniment,  and  thus  the  melodrama 
was  called  into  existence.  Then,  with  the  in- 
troduction of  additional  actors,  the  dialogue  was 
made  possible,  and  finally,  with  the  employment 
of  costumes,  scenery,  and  stage  mechanism,  the 
apparatus  of  the  Greek  drama  was  rendered 
complete. 

Each  of  these  innovations  necessarily  tended 
towards  forcing  the  chorus,  which  had  origi- 
nally been  the  main  factor,  into  the  background 
so  far  as  its  active  participation  in  the  play  was 
concerned  ;  yet  the  task  which  it  was  required 
to  perform  continued  to  be  of  the  highest  ar- 
tistic significance  and  to  demand  the  most  thor- 
ough and  careful  preparation. 

The  place  occupied  by  the  chorus  was  the 
orchestra,  a  platform  erected  in  front  of  and  a 
little  below  the  level  of  the  stage,  with  which  it 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

was  connected  by  steps,  as  at  times  the  pres- 
ence of  the  singers  was  required  on  the  stage 
proper.  With  the  action  of  the  drama  the 
chorus  was  not  identified.  Although  composed 
of  men  only,  it  represented  a  body  of  men  or 
women  who,  standing  in  no  immediate  relation 
to  the  characters  in  the  play,  annotated  the  oc- 
currences with  words  of  advice,  warning,  or 
comfort.  At  points  of  rest,  between  the  scenes 
or  acts,  the  chorus  sang  longer  lyric  pieces 
referring  to  the  progress  of  the  plot  and  its 
ethical  purpose.  In  these  intermezzi^ — to  use  a 
familiar  term — which  were  accompanied  by  ap- 
propriate gestures  and  most  carefully  designed 
evolutions,  the  full  chorus,  the  chorus  subdi- 
vided for  the  purpose  of  responsive  effects, 
semi-choruses,  and  individual  singers  were  em- 
ployed. The  chorus  was  kept  in  time  and  step 
and  in  accord  with  the  instrumentalists  by  the 
corypheus,  who  marked  the  rhythm  by  clapping 
his  hands,  striking  together  pieces  of  wood  or 
shell,  or  by  stamping  his  feet,  which  were  clad 
in  sandals  with  wooden  or  metal  soles  so  that 
the  beats  might  be  more  distinctly  heard.  Such 
a  conductor  was  subsequently  called  by  the 
Romans  manuductor  if  he  made  use  of  his  hands, 
pedicularius  if  he  made  use  of  his  feet. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the 
dramatic  representations  in  ancient  Greece  it 

13 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


must  be  remembered  that  they  were  not  pri- 
vate undertakings  intended  for  the  amusement 
of  the  public,  but  festivals  of  a  semi-religious 
character,  which  were  considered  essential  to 
the  political  and  moral  welfare  of  the  nation  ; 
that  they  provided  the  arena  in  which  the  mas- 
ter minds  of  the  nation  contended  for  suprem- 
acy, for  the  immortality  of  which  the  victor 
could  be  certain  ;  and  that  they  were  therefore 
guarded  in  their  every  feature  with  jealous 
care.  The  rivalry  which  they  stimulated  ex- 
tended to  the  choruses,  for  these  were  repre- 
sentative of  the  districts  which  furnished  them, 
and  to  the  successful  one  an  artistically  deco- 
rated tripod  was  awarded  as  prize. 

The  organisation  of  the  choruses  was  pro- 
vided for  by  law.  The  poet  whose  drama  was 
to  be  performed  made  application  for  a  chorus 
to  a  magistrate.  If  his  request  was  granted,  the 
best  singers  were  sought  out  in  each  district 
and  subjected  to  an  examination.  The  requisite 
numbers  having  been  selected,  wealthy  citizens 
chosen  to  be  choragi  furnished  the  means  neces- 
sary for  the  sustenance,  instruction,  and  equip- 
ment of  the  choir.  The  singers  were  then 
trained  by  a  chorus  master  assisted  by  the 
leader  of  the  orchestra,  unless  the  poet  himself 
preferred  to  assume  this  duty.  The  tripod 
presented  to  the  best  chorus  became  the  prop- 

14 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

erty  of  its  choragus,  who  dedicated  it  to  a 
deity  and  placed  it  on  a  monument  set  up  for 
the  purpose.  A  street  in  Athens  was  com- 
pletely lined  with  choragic  monuments,  of 
which  one  erected  by  Lysicrates  about  335  B.C. 
is  still  in  existence.  The  outlay  for  choruses 
was  much  increased  in  the  course  of  time  by 
the  efforts  of  the  choragi  to  make  sure  of 
the  prize  by  securing  professional  singers  and 
clothing  them  in  the  most  costly  and  gorgeous 
costumes.  It  is  related  that  one  competitor 
expended  ten  thousand  eight  hundred  drach- 
mae (about  twenty -five  hundred  dollars)  on 
choruses  within  two  years,  a  sum  which  at 
the  time  was  considered  enormous.  It  was 
largely  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  cho- 
ragi that  the  chorus  was  eliminated  from  the 
comedy. 

While  chorus  singing  was  carefully  nurtured 
in  Greece  in  connection  with  the  drama,  it  was 
likewise  cultivated  among  the  people  as  a  val- 
uable means  of  education  and  a  refined  type  of 
diversion.  The  fact  that  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers devoted  much  thought  to  the  question 
as  to  what  modes  or  keys  were  best  calculated 
to  encourage  strength  of  character  and  purity 
of  mind,  shows  that  music  was  held  in  honour 
as  an  important  factor  in  the  daily  life  of  the 
people.     Nor  is  it  likely  that  the  competitions 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


in  playing  and  singing  which  were  inseparable 
from  the  numerous  festivals  of  the  Greek  cal- 
endar, and  which  were  listened  to  by  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  whole  country,  should  have  failed 
to  excite  universal  interest  in  choral  music  and 
to  stimulate  its  practice.  To  choral  culture 
among  the  people  Archilochus  (700  B.C.),  the 
creator  of  the  melodrama,  gave  artistic  direc- 
tion by  inventing  the  iambics,  which  on  ac- 
count of  their  metre,  corresponding  to  the 
flowing,  graceful  triple  rhythm  in  music,  and  on 
account  of  their  homely  but  spirited  language 
appealed  to  public  taste  and  called  into  life  new 
folkmelodies. 

Although  the  laws  which  governed  rhythm 
and  melody  in  Greek  music  are  well  known, 
no  conception  can  be  formed  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  they  were  applied  in  practice,  for  not 
a  single  well  authenticated  example  of  ancient 
Greek  music  has  been  preserved,  unless  the 
Hymn  to  Apollo  found  in  the  excavations  at 
Delphi  in  1893  be  accepted  as  such  a  one. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  character  of  the 
music  to  which  the  monologues  and  dialogues 
in  the  drama,  all  of  which  were  probably  sung, 
were  set,  the  fact  that  the  choruses  were  inva- 
riably accompanied  by  dances  gives  colour  to 
the  assumption  that  they  were  of  a  rhythmical- 
ly pronounced  and  easily  comprehensible  char- 

16 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

acter,  the  rhythms  being  dictated  by  the  pro- 
sodic  quantity  of  the  syllables.  While  the 
melodic  rise  and  fall  of  the  voice,  according  to 
fixed  cadences,  was  probably  conditioned  by 
considerations  of  elocution,  it  conformed  to 
clearly  recognisable  intervals,  in  the  acoustic 
measurement  of  which  the  Greek  theorists 
were  wonderfully  expert. 

It  is  all  but  certain  that  the  chorus  singing 
was  in  unison,  perhaps  at  times  in  octaves. 
Into  the  instrumental  accompaniment,  how- 
ever, melodies  seem  to  have  been  indepen- 
dently introduced.  These  melodies  were  imi- 
tative of  the  vocal  ones,  and  it  was  considered 
very  important  that  the  answer  to  a  given 
theme — the  counter  theme — be  constructed  ac- 
cording to  rule.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the 
art  of  counterpoint,  the  art  of  consorting  sev- 
eral individual  melodies,  was  practised,  in  a 
limited  sense,  by  the  Greeks. 

The  period  of  florescence  of  Greek  music 
created  by  the  national  enthusiasm  and  patri- 
otic pride  which  followed  the  Persian  wars, 
was  of  comparatively  short  duration.  Greek 
music  was  not  an  independent  art  which  could 
thrive  dissociated  from  poetry.  When,  there- 
fore, about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
the  decadence  of  the  drama  set  in,  music  fol- 
lowed in   its   wake.     Only  in   evolving   theo- 

17 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


retical  systems  on  the  basis  of  former  artistic 
achievements  important  results  continued  to 
be  accomplished.  Although  these  systems 
could  be  on  the  whole  of  little  practical  value 
to  the  development  of  modern  music — in  cer- 
tain ways  they  even  retarded  it — efforts  were 
constantly  made  to  apply  them,  under  com- 
plete misapprehension  of  their  purport,  up  to 
the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  Romans,  occupied  with  the  extension 
of  their  empire  and  the  establishment  of  their 
political  power,  contributed  nothing  towards 
musical  progress.  As  singers  and  instrumen- 
talists flocked  to  Rome  from  Greece  there  was 
no  want  of  music,  but  only  of  music  that  pleased 
the  vitiated  taste  of  a  people  delighting  in  ex- 
cesses and  licentiousness.  Choral  perform- 
ances were  in  great  favour  in  Rome.  It  was 
Greek  music  however — Greek  music  of  the 
popular  kind,  simple  in  rhythm  and  melody — 
which  was  sung  on  such  occasions.  In  defer- 
ence to  prevailing  custom  these  performances 
were  conducted  on  the  most  elaborate  scale.  It 
is  recorded  that  at  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  (loo- 
44  B.C.)  twelve  thousand  singers  and  instrumen- 
talists were  gathered  together  in  Rome  to  take 
part  in  a  public  celebration ;  and  Nero  (a.d. 
37-68),  who  degraded  the  art  by  his  ludicrous 
attempts  at  composing,  singing,  and  playing,  is 

x8 


Among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 

said  to  have  supported  five  hundred  court 
musicians  for  his  own  entertainment.  Ancient 
culture  had  run  its  course.  Conditions  were 
ripe  for  the  spiritual  and  artistic  revolution 
which  Christianity  effected. 


19 


II 

In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

FOR  more  than  fifteen  hundred  years  after 
the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era  the  practice 
of  music  as  an  art  was  monopolised  by  the 
Church  ;  and  as  the  Church  discountenanced  in- 
strumental music,  the  history  of  choral  music 
during  that  long  period  is  the  history  of  music. 
In  the  course  of  that  time  the  most  highly  or- 
ganised distinctively  choral  forms  were  invent- 
ed and  brought  to  a  state  of  perfection  by  the 
Church  composers,  whose  sovereign  command 
of  pure  choral  writing  has  never  been  surpassed 
if  it  has  been  equalled.  Instrumental  music 
however,  upon  which  the  tone-art  depended  for 
further  progress,  and  in  which  modern  music 
had  its  source,  was  left  in  the  possession  of  the 
people  who  followed  the  promptings  of  their 
own  fancy  in  spite  of  theoretical  rules  and  not- 
withstanding ecclesiastical  edicts. 

While  at  the  hand  of  the  works  of  architect- 
ure, sculpture,  and  painting  that  have  been 
preserved,  it  is  possible  to  trace  the  course  of 

20 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

evolution  of  these  arts  under  the  influence  of 
Christianity,  there  is  little  to  be  found,  excepting 
fragments  of  theoretical  and  historical  treatises, 
that  might  illustrate  the  development  of  music 
during  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
Even  if  older  manuscripts  than  those  handed 
down  —  they  are  supposed  to  date  from  the 
eighth,  possibly  from  the  sixth  century — should 
be  discovered,  little  light  would  be  thrown  on  the 
subject,  for  it  was  not  until  about  the  eleventh 
century  that  a  system  of  notation  came  into  use 
which  indicated  with  any  degree  of  accuracy 
the  pitch  and  duration  of  tones,  unless  indeed 
the  key  for  the  methods  of  notation  employed 
before  that  time  has  been  lost.  It  seems  rea- 
sonable, however,  to  assume  that  in  music  the 
primitive  Christians,  for  a  time  at  least,  yielded 
to  the  same  influences  and  were  guided  by  the 
same  practical  considerations  as  in  other  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  their  religious  observances. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  social  intercourse 
between  Christian  converts  and  pagans,  so  far 
as  it  did  not  offend  religious  beliefs  and  prac- 
tices, remained  unrestricted.  In  every-day  life 
little  difference  was  apparent  between  the  cus- 
toms and  habits  of  the  Christian  layman  and  the 
Roman  citizen.  The  buildings  erected  by  the 
pagans,  such  as  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  the  ba- 
silikas  (halls  of  justice),  and  similar  architectu- 

31 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


ral  monuments,  were  either  turned  into  places 
of  devotion  or  made  to  serve  as  models  for  such 
without  a  thought  of  the  purposes  for  which 
they  had  been  originally  designed.  In  the 
catacombs,  where  in  order  to  escape  persecu- 
tion the  Christians  were  wont  to  assemble  for 
exhortation  and  prayer,  the  mural  decorations 
represented  figures  and  scenes  from  ancient 
mythology  altered  so  as  to  apply  to  the  bibli- 
cal stories.  It  is  not  probable  that  in  music 
alone  a  different  course  was  pursued  and 
pagan  influence  entirely  set  aside.  A  strong 
argument  in  favour  of  this  view  is  based  on 
the  discovery  that  most  of  the  hymns  and 
antiphons  of  the  Roman  Church  conform  to 
the  melodic  types  (nomes)  peculiar  to  the  Greek 
hymns  and  choral  songs  accompanied  by  the 
kythara,  a  large  lyre,  to  which  on  account  of 
the  fixed  pitch  of  its  seven  strings  these  types 
were  best  adapted.  The  use  of  instruments  at 
divine  service  being  prohibited,  the  accompani- 
ment was  either  omitted  or,  as  some  authorities 
claim,  supplied  by  the  voices  of  the  musically 
better  informed  members  of  the  congregation. 
In  the  Eastern  Church,  and  through  it  later 
in  the  Western  Church,  the  influence  of  Hebrew 
music  made  itself  felt.  Philo  (20  b.c.-a.d.  40), 
a  Hellenistic  Jewish  philosopher,  wrote  of  the 
Therapeutae,  the  sect  referred  to  in  the  previous 

22 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

chapter,  that  they  continued  to  celebrate  their 
love-feasts  in  the  following  manner :  After  the 
Supper,  when  all  had  risen,  two  choirs,  one  of  / 
men  and  one  of  women,  were  selected,  and  from 
each  of  these  a  person  of  majestic  form  was 
chosen  to  lead.  These  then  chanted  hymns  in\ 
honour  of  God,  composed  in  different  measures  ^^  ~wl 
and  modulations,  now  singing  together  and  /^ 
now  answering  each  other  by  turns.  Here  the 
responsive  and  antiphonal  manner  of  singing 
which  was  practised  among  the  Hebrews  from 
time  immemorial  and  was  probably  introduced 
into  the  church  by  Hebrew  converts,  is  evi- 
dently referred  to.  Another  feature  for  which 
the  Church  is  indebted  to  Hebrew  tradition, 
and  to  which  the  so-called  sequences  still  in  use 
in  the  Latin  Church  owe  their  origin,  were  the 
*'  pneumae,"  florid  groups  of  tones,  prolonged 
shouts  of  joy,  as  it  were,  which  were  sung  by 
the  congregation,  at  first  to  the  last  vowel 
sound  of  the  word  Hallelujah,  and  later  to  an 
inarticulate  syllable.  It  is  stated  that  the  Copts, 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who  have 
remained  true  to  the  traditions  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  Egypt,  still  embellish  their  ritual 
with  guttural  ornaments  and  often  spin  out  a 
Hallelujah  to  the  duration  of  a  quarter  of  an 
hour. 

It  was  natural  that,  as  the  Christian  congre- 
23 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


gallons  increased  in  number  and  size,  efforts 
should  have  been  made  to  render  the  services 
more  elaborate  for  the  sake  of  the  worshippers 
themselves  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
tracting the  public.  This  led  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  melodies  unsuited  to  church  use  both 
on  account  of  their  character  and  their  diffi- 
culty ;  wherefore  Clement  of  Alexandria  (died 
about  A.D.  220)  felt  called  upon  to  interdict  the 
use  in  his  congregation  of  so-called  chromatic 
melodies,  probably  melodies  which  contained 
ornaments  with  chromatic  tones. 
^^f  The  popularity  which  choral  music  enjoyed 
/  \  among  the  Christians  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  fourth  century  the  singing  of  hymns 
proved  a  powerful  means  in  the  hands  of  the 
Arians  to  increase  their  following.  Ephraem 
of  Edessa  (died  about  373),  the  champion  of  the 
Orthodox,  and  himself  a  writer  of  hymns,  in 
self-defence  organised  and  trained  a  choir  of 
young  women,  with  the  aid  of  which  he  gained 
the  day.  At  Constantinople  the  Arians,  who 
were  not  permitted  to  worship  within  the  walls, 
came  into  the  city  and  congregating  at  public 
places  sang  antiphonal  songs  all  night  long. 
Fearful  of  the  result,  St.  Chrysostom  (347?- 
407)  organised  with  the  assistance  and  at  the 
expense  of  Eudoxia,  the  Empress  of  Arcadius, 
nightly  processional  hymn  singing,  in  which 

24 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

the  church  singers  under  their  conductor,  the 
Empress's  chief  eunuch,  took  part  to  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  Arians.  From  this  it  appears 
that  trained  choirs  belonged  to  the  established 
institutions  of  the  Greek  Church  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century. 

In  the  Latin  Church,  which  with  Rome  as 
its  head  was  destined  to  direct  the  course  of 
church  music,  the  first  step  towards  bringing  or- 
der into  the  chaos  of  conflicting  traditions  was 
taken  with  the  foundation  of  singing-schools 
at  Rome  by  Pope  Sylvester  in  314.  This  was 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  occurrences  in  the 
history  of  choral  culture,  for  it  led  to  the  or- 
ganisation of  the  oldest  choral  body  in  the 
world,  the  Sistine  Chapel,  nominally  at  least 
still  in  existence,  which  served  as  the  proto- 
type for  all  choral  institutions  up  to  the  time 
when,  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
amateur  singing  societies,  independent  of  all 
church  affiliations,  sprang  into  life. 

The  monopoly  of  church  music  —  the  only 
music  recognised  as  artistic  up  to  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  secular  music  began  to  engage 
the  serious  attention  of  composers, — was  given 
to  the  trained  choirs  by  the  decree  passed  at 
the  Council  of  Laodicea  in  367,  which  forbad 
all  except  those  appointed  therefor  to  sing  in 
church.  The  object  of  this  step  was  not  so 
-35 


// 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


much  to  encourage  choral  culture  as  to  bring 
uniformity  into  the  music  of  the  ritual  and, 
after  this  had  been  accomplished,  to  insure 
its  faithful  preservation  by  tradition ;  for  with 
the  closing  of  the  pagan  schools  by  order 
of  Emperor  Theodosius  (346-395),  what  little 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  system  of  notation  by 
means  of  uncial  letters  had  been  preserved  fell 
into  oblivion  among  the  people. 

To  memorise  so  large  a  number  of  hymns  and 
chants  as  were  in  constant  use  required  distinc- 
tively musical  talent,  and  to  sing  them  properly, 
long  technical  training.  In  consequence  the 
singing  schools  of  themselves  developed  into  in- 
s^*  ,utions  for  the  general  musical  as  well  as  the 

ecifically  vocal  instruction  of  men  and  boys  of 
xceptional  gifts.  The  more  proficient  these 
became,  the  more  forcefully  they  felt  and  the 
more  gladly  they  yielded  to  the  seductive  power 
of  music  for  stimulating  individual  fancy  and 
breaking  the  shackles  of  conventionality  and 
tradition  ;  and  thus  there  arose  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  progressive  efforts  of  the  singers 
and  the  restraining  hand  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  which  continued  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  evolution  of  church  music. 

The  first  effective  measures  towards  adjusting 
and  prescribing  the  music  of  the  liturgy  were 
taken  by  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (340  ?- 

26 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

397),  who  sifted  the  material  which  had  accum- 
ulated in  the  course  of  time  and  enriched  the 
Roman  ritual  by  bringing  antiphonal  and  re- 
sponsive singing  as  well  as  Greek  hymnody 
from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Church.  He 
also  translated  a  number  of  the  most  beautiful 
Greek  hymns  into  Latin  and  wrote  new  ones  in 
the  latter  language.  These  hymns  were  of  simple 
rhythmical  structure,  principally  in  the  iambic 
metres  peculiar  to  Greek  popular  poetry,  and 
were  probably  intended  to  be  sung  to  melodies 
of  a  Greek  type,  for  St.  Augustine  (354-430), 
the  collaborator  of  St.  Ambrose,  is  credited  with 
having  made  a  collection  of  such  melodies  for 
church  use.  The  oft  repeated  story  that  t7,t* 
Ambrose  excluded  all  melodies  excepting  thO( 
which  conformed  to  four  certain  Greek  mode, 
or  scale  forms,  afterwards  called  authentic,  has 
been  long  since  disproved. 

The  influence  of  the  singing  schools  became  / 
more  and  more  apparent  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  ecclesiastics,  who  were  trained  in  these 
institutions  from  boyhood  up  and  began  their 
activity  as  members  of  the  choir,  became  so 
interested  in  their  musical  studies  that  they 
neglected  their  other  duties.  It  was  their  one 
aim  to  excel  in  beauty  of  tone  production, 
smoothness  of  execution,  and  expressiveness  of 
utterance.     They  could  not  be  restrained  from 

27 


y 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


altering  the  prescribed  melodies  by  unduly  pro- 
longing- tones,  spinning  out  traditional  tone- 
groups  (pneumas),  and  introducing  new  embel- 
lishments. There  was  imminent  danger  of  the 
secularisation  of  church  music,  of  the  church's 
being  turned  into  a  concert  room. 

To  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  (540  ?-6o4)  induced  the  synod  of  595 
to  pass  among  other  corrective  measures  a  de- 
cree which  prohibited  priests  and  deacons  from 
assuming  the  specifically  musical  functions  of 
divine  service  and  assigned  these  to  ecclesias- 
tics of  inferior  ranks.  Furthermore,  he  was  in- 
strumental in  bringing  about  the  reorganisa- 
tion of  the  singing  schools  which  led  directly 
to  the  permanent  establishment  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  Of  the  many  other  musical  and  litur- 
gical reforms  which  are  persistently  attributed 
to  Gregory  the  Great,  he  was  not  the  origi- 
nator. Least  of  all  was  he  responsible  for  the 
introduction  of  the  so-called  plagal  modes  and 
of  the  system  of  musical  notation  by  means  of 
the  first  seven  letters  of  the  Latin  alphabet. 
These  innovations  belong  to  a  later  date,  as 
does  the  so-called  Gregorian  antiphonary, 
which  was  in  all  probability  the  work  of  Greg- 
ory II.  (Pope  715-731)  or  of  Gregory  III.  (Pope 
731-741).  Yet  tradition  would  have  it  that 
Gregory  the    Great    compiled    this    book  of 

28 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

hymns,  chants,  and  melodies,  and  caused  a  copy 
of  it  to  be  made  and  chained  to  the  altar  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  as  containing  the  only  read- 
ings authorised  by  the  Church. 

The  view  that  there  was  an  essential  differ- 
ence between  Ambrosian  and  Gregorian  music 
is  no  longer  universally  entertained.  If  one 
was  more  measured  and  stately  than  the  other 
it  was  the  music  of  the  Ambrosian  hymn,  which 
was  intended  for  popular,  congregational  use, 
not  that  of  the  Gregorian  chant,  which  was 
intrusted  to  trained  choirs.  The  latter  was 
not  deprived  of  its  original  embellishments 
and  rhythmic  life,  nor  written  in  notes  of 
equal  value,  as  cantus  planus,  plain  chant, 
until  the  mediaeval  composers  made  use  of  it 
for  the  purpose  of  building  up  contrapuntal 
riddles. 

The  Gregorian  antiphonary  was  written  in 
neumes,  characters  consisting  of  points,  lines, 
accents,  hooks,  curves,  and  angles,  which, 
placed  over  the  syllables  of  the  words  of  the 
text,  indicated  by  their  contours  the  directions 
in  which  the  voice  was  to  modulate.  They 
were  probably  invented  by  the  singers  them- 
selves, who  found  the  Greek  system  of  nota- 
tion by  means  of  letters  (whether  Greek  or 
Latin),  if  they  were  familiar  with  it,  too  intri- 
cate.    The   neumes  were   nothing  more  than 

29 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


mnemonic  guides  with  the  aid  of  which  only 
melodies  previously  learned  could  be  recalled. 
For  the  notation  of  unknown  melodies  they 
were  useless,  as  they  indicated  the  direction 
but  not  the  distance  which  the  voice  should 
cover  in  ascending  or  descending.  Yet  such 
assistance  as  they  afforded  was  invaluable,  for 
in  the  course  of  the  Church  year  no  fewer  than 
one  thousand  different  melodies  were  sung, 
some  of  them  only  once  annually. 

The  purpose  of  notation  in  neumes  was  iden- 
tical with  that  underlying  the  modern  system 
of  notation,  which  is  intended  to  suggest  to 
the  eye  the  outlines  of  melody.  Some  of  the 
conventional  embellishments  in  use  to-day, 
such  as  certain  forms  of  the  trill  and  the  turn, 
are  expressed  in  signs  traceable  to  the  neumes, 
while  the  notation  of  Gregorian  music  still  em- 
ployed really  consists  in  neumes  placed  on  a 
stave  of  four  lines.  The  plan  of  making  these 
signs  more  definite  by  means  of  a  horizontal 
line  seems  to  have  been  devised  in  the  tenth 
century.  The  object  of  this  line,  a  red  one, 
was  to  designate  F  as  the  basic  tone,  so  to 
speak,  about  which  the  tone  groups  repre- 
sented by  the  neumes  hovered.  Therewith 
one  of  the  principles  of  the  stave  notation  was 
practically  discovered. 

The  following  example  in  early  neume  nota- 
30 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

tion  will   make  apparent  the  inadequacy  and 
intricacy  of  the  system  : — 


lis. 


^l^'^.iy^ 


Solution. 


1 


^ 


J  cj  J  q  gJ 


a 


Ife       lu 


ja 


Besides  the  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the 
neumes,  of  \vhich  there  were  as  many  as  forty 
or  fifty,  thorough  familiarity  with  the  traditions 
of  the  Gregorian  song  was  indispensable  to  its 
correct  performance.  These  traditions  were 
in  constant  danger  of  being  distorted  and  were 
indeed  eventually  lost.  Even  the  care  which 
was  exercised  in  the  singing  schools,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  Papal  choir,  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
which  was  the  court  of  last  resort  in  contro- 
versies pertaining  to  the  Latin  liturgy,  was  not 
sufficient  to  preserve  traditions  inviolate.  The 
nature  of  these  traditions  can  be  gathered 
from  one  of  the  oldest  antiphonaries  in  exist- 

31 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


// 


ence,  that  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  con- 
vent at  St.  Gall,  Switzerland.  This  supposedly 
faithful  transcript  of  the  Gregorian  antipho- 
nary  was  supplied,  probably  by  a  certain  Ro- 
manus,  who  brought  it  to  St.  Gall  about  790, 
with  the  initial  letters  of  words  designative  of 
the  proper  rhythms,  variations  in  speed,  orna- 
ments, and  vocal  effects.  Among  the  last 
named  mediaeval  annotators  mention  the  trem- 
olo, which  they  liken  to  the  pealing  of  the 
trumpet ;  the  trillo  caprino  ("  goat-bleat "),  and 
the  gruppetti,  which  are  compared  to  the  ten- 
drils of  the  vine  —  proof  conclusive  that  the 
Gregorian  chant  as  originally  sung  was  not 
plain. 

In  order  to  commit  to  memory  such  readings 
and  to  master  the  technical  difficulties  which 
they  presented,  long  continued  study  and  con- 
stant practice  were  necessary.  For  both  the 
monastic  schools,  which  were  everywhere 
founded  as  the  most  efficient  means  of  spread- 
ing che  new  doctrine,  provided  ample  opportu- 
nity. They  were  modelled  after  the  singing 
schools  of  Rome,  scholce  cantorum,  whose  cur- 
riculum was  as  follows:  One  hour  was  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  intonation ;  a  second,  to 
the  practice  of  trills  and  ornaments  ;  a  third, 
to  the  practice  of  scales ;  a  fourth,  to  acquiring 
beauty  and  taste  of  expression.     From  time  to 

32 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

time  the  choristers  were  taken  just  outsied  the 
Porta  Angelica,  where,  on  account  of  a  per- 
fect echo,  they  could  hear  their  own  voices  and 
judge  of  the  effect  of  their  singing.  To  this 
course  of  technical  preparation  there  must  be 
added  instruction  in  reading  the  hieroglyphic 
neumes  and  the  rehearsals  necessary  to  all  but 
memorise  an  endless  number  of  chants  and 
responses.  Singers  so  trained  from  youth  up 
could  not  but  attain  to  a  high  degree  of  profi- 
ciency, and  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that 
Gregorian  music,  homophone  though  it  was, 
performed  by  a  choir  of  such  singers,  in  perfect 
accord  with  the  ceremonial,  should  not  only 
have  produced  a  deep  impression  but  satisfied 
the  highest  artistic  requirements  as  well. 

Progress  in  choral  music  was  not  possible  in 
Italy,  where  the  slightest  deviation  from  the 
rules  and  traditions  observed  by  the  Roman 
singers  was  considered  a  sacrilege  punishable 
with  imprisonment.  Not  so  in  the  erstwhile 
barbarian  countries  of  middle  and  northern 
Europe,  where,  notwithstanding  unremitting 
efforts  to  introduce  and  preserve  the  authentic 
Gregorian  style  with  the  help  of  choristers 
summoned  from  Rome,  national  idiosyncrasies 
could  not  be  suppressed  nor  the  influence  of 
primeval  customs  effaced.  To  such  an  idio- 
syncrasy the  origin  of  the   sequences,  a  kind 

33 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  hymn  which   enjoyed  great    popularity  in 
mediaeval  times,  is  ascribed. 

It  is  said  that  the  Gallic  singers  with  their 
coarse,  ponderous  voices  were  unable  to  execute 
the  pneumae  with  any  degree  of  rapidity  and 
that,  in  consequence,  these  florid  tone  groups 
were  so  prolonged  as  to  lose  their  character 
and  meaning.  To  prevent  their  complete  cor- 
ruption they  were  provided  with  texts,  termed 
proses  because  their  rhythms  depended  upon 
the  accent  and  not,  as  was  the  case  in  classic  po- 
etry, on  the  quantity  of  the  syllables.  The  most 
important  result  of  writing  sequences  (so  called 
on  account  of  their  following  the  verses  and 
antiphons  in  the  ritual)  lay  in  the  reversal  of 
the  heretofore  observed  principle  that  melody 
should  have  no  identity  of  its  own,  but  should 
be  the  slave  of  the  words,  whereas  in  the  se- 
quences the  words  were  adjusted  to  a  given 
melody,  and  therewith  the  independence  of 
melody  was  practically  illustrated.  Notker 
Balbulus  (840-912),  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall, 
famed  far  and  wide  for  the  excellence  of  its 
boys'  choir,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
authors  of  sequences.  Of  the  many  which 
were  incorporated  into  mediaeval  office  books 
in  the  course  of  time  only  five  are  now  recog- 
nised by  the  Church.  The  two  best  known  of 
these  are  the  "  Stabat  Mater,"  generally  attrib- 

34 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

uted  to  Jacobus  de  Benedictis  (died  1306),  and 
the  "  Dies  Irae,"  ascribed  to  Thomas  of  Celano 
(died  about  1255). 

To  the  tenacity  with  which  the  peoples  of 
Northern  Europe  adhered  to  their  old  customs 
in  the  face  of  the  opposition  of  the  Church,  the 
invention  of  harmony  too  is  in  all  probability 
due.  While  in  Italy  the  exclusion  of  instru- 
mental music  from  the  Church  was  rigidly 
enforced,  such  was  not  the  case  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany,  to  use  modern  geo- 
graphical designations.  Here  under  stress  of 
popular  demand  the  clergy  not  only  permitted, 
but  encouraged  the  playing  of  instruments  b)? 
providing  opportunities  for  their  study  in  the 
monastic  schools.  The  choir  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Gall,  celebrated  for  the  elaborateness  of 
its  musical  services,  was  on  festival  days  sup- 
ported by  an  orchestra  of  harps  {nablid),  flutes, 
an  organ,  cymbals,  a  seven  stringed  psaltery, 
triangle,  and  bells ;  while  the  band  of  the  abbey 
of  Reichenau,  an  island  in  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance, was  noted  for  its  completeness  and 
excellence. 

Among  the  stringed  instruments  in  common 
use  in  the  northern  countries  there  were  several 
which  were  designed  to  produce  a  number  of 
different  tones  simultaneously ;  and  in  imitat- 
ing these  instruments   the    choir  singers  are 

35 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


supposed  to  have  stumbled  on  a  sort  of  har- 
mony. On  the  other  hand  the  fact  that  those 
singers  versed  in  the  science  of  adding  a  new- 
part,  the  "  organum,"  to  a  given  melody  were 
called  organisers,  gives  colour  to  the  view  that 
the  roughly  constructed  organs  in  use  at  the 
time,  the  clumsy  keys  of  which  were  pressea 
down  with  the  fists  or  elbows  and  the  tones 
of  which  were  likened  unto  thunder,  may  have 
been  occasionally  so  manipulated  as  to  sound 
tones  simultaneously,  and  thus  may  have  sug- 
gested the  new  style  of  singing. 

At  first  the  parts  extemporised  by  the  organ- 
isers were  nothing  more  than  the  melody  du- 
plicated at  the  distance  of  the  perfect  octave, 
fourth,  and  fifth — the  only  intervals  at  which  it 
could  be  accurately  reproduced  within  a  certain 
compass  without  the  introduction  of  sharps  or 
flats,  then  virtually  unknown.  As  it  is  well  nigh 
inconceivable  that  a  continuous  series  of  fourths 
and  fifths  should  not  have  offended  the  musical 
sensibilities,  the  theory  has  been  advanced  that 
the  different  voices  did  not  sing  together  but 
followed  one  another,  and  in  very  slow  time, 
thus  "breaking"  and  thereby  softening  the  ob- 
jectionable intervals.  In  support  of  this  argu- 
ment the  explicit  instructions  to  this  effect 
given  in  a  treatise  on  music  by  Elias  Sa- 
lamonis  (about  1274),  a  monk  of  the  convent  of 

36 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

St.  Ast^re,  Perigord,  are  quoted.  Mozart,  how- 
ever, in  a  letter  written  during  his  Italian  tour 
of  1769  and  1770  refers  with  surprise  to  a  prac- 
tice apparently  then  still  prevalent  of  singing 
the  same  melody  at  the  uniform  distance  of  a 
fifth. 

Once  suggested,  the  possibility  of  singing  in 
several  parts  stimulated  choristers  to  all  kinds 
of  experiments,  which  resulted  in  the  invention 
of  different  types  of  the  organum.  To  one 
singer  it  occurred  that  he  might  sustain  a  lower 
tone  as  a  basis  to  his  companion's  melody; 
another  found  that  he  could  sustain  a  tone  for  a 
time  and  then  accompany  his  associate  at  the 
distance  of  a  fourth  or  fifth ;  while  a  third  one, 
still  more  venturesome,  dared  to  proceed  oc- 
casionally with  his  voice  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  that  taken  by  his  companion  who  followed 
the  course  of  a  familiar  tune.  Thus  step  by 
step  the  resources  of  singing  in  several  parts 
were  discovered. 

All  this  was  accomplished  in  the  study  room 
of  the  choir.  Composers  in  the  real  sense  of 
the  word  there  were  none.  Until  a  method  of 
notation  capable  of  designating  the  duration  of 
tones  as  well  as  their  pitch  came  into  com- 
mon use,  music  in  two  or  more  parts  was 
the  product  of  the  momentary  inspiration  of 
the  choristers ;  and  as  the  leading  ones  at  least 

37 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


were  required  to  possess  this  faculty  as  well 
as  intimate  familiarity  with  the  restrictions  to 
be  observed  in  its  exercise,  it  is  evident  that 
the  choirs  of  that  period  must  have  consisted  of 
highly  endowed,  thoroughly  instructed,  and 
well  trained  singers  and  musicians.  The  or- 
ganisers were,  so  to  speak,  the  soloists  of  the 
choirs  and  were  specially  paid  for  their  services. 

While  the  organum  was  developing  in  prac- 
tice in  the  singing  schools,  theorists  were  occu- 
pied with  formulating  laws  which  might  apply 
to  the  new  style.  The  first  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject is  generally  ascribed  to  Hucbald  (840-930), 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  convent  of  St. 
Amand  sur  TElnon,  in  Flanders  (though  his 
identity  is  not  definitely  established),  and  the 
name  of  Hucbald  is  therefore  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  the  origin  of  the  organum.  Not- 
withstanding the  apparently  harmonic  charac- 
ter of  the  organum,  neither  the  singers  nor  the 
theorists  of  that  period  had  a  conception  of 
harmony  in  the  present  meaning  of  the  term. 
They  had  learned  to  follow  the  course  of  two 
or  more  melodies  independently  of  each  other, 
but  the  effect  produced  by  a  number  of  simul- 
taneously sounding  tones  (chords)  they  could 
not  comprehend. 

Although  Hucbald  also  thought  out  several 
new  systems  of  musical  notation,  his  inventions 

38 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

in  this  direction  proved  of  no  permanent  value. 
It  remained  for  Guido  of  Arezzo  (born  about 
995),  a  Benedictine  monk,  to  discover  the 
method  of  stave  notation  which  in  principle  is 
still  in  use,  and  to  originate  a  plan  of  reading 
music  at  first  sight  which  has  its  adherents  at 
the  present  day.  So  far  as  the  former  is  con- 
cerned, Guido's  innovation  consisted  in  draw- 
ing between  the  two  coloured  lines  employed 
before  his  time  to  represent  the  tones  F  and  C, 
a  black  one  to  stand  for  A,  and  in  turning  to 
account  both  the  lines  and  the  spaces  for  the 
purpose  of  placing  the  neumes,  whereby  they 
were  invested  with  definite  meaning  as  to  pitch. 
The  second  of  his  inventions,  though  not  so 
important,  is  here  considered  a  little  more 
closely,  because  on  it  are  based  systems  of 
reading  music  which,  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  modern  tonality,  are  still  in  great 
vogue  with  chorus  singers,  especially  in  Eng- 
land and  America.  The  principal  ones  of  these 
are  the  so-called  ''  Fixed  Do,"  **  Movable  Do," 
and  the  "Tonic  Sol-Fa"  systems.  It  may  be 
well  to  premise  that  Guido  alone  did  not  for- 
mulate the  method  about  to  be  described,  but 
that  other  theorists  contributed  their  share 
towards  its  development. 

Guido's  life -object  was  avowedly  to  be  of 
service  to  the  Church  by  devising  means  for- 

39 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


lightening  the  burden  of  *'  the  little  ones,"  as  he 
called  his  pupils,  and  promoting  their  musical 
knowledge.  The  first  expedient  to  which  he 
resorted  with  this  in  view  was  based  on  the  as- 
sociation of  ideas,  and  consisted  in  impressing 
on  the  minds  of  the  pupils  a  typical  melody  by 
comparison  with  which  a  new  one  could  readily 
be  learned  and  fixed  in  the  memory.  For  this 
purpose  Guido  chose  a  then  universally  famil- 
iar hymn,  dating  probably  from  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, one  of  a  number  of  different  versions  of 
which  is  as  follows  : — 


-C^* 

-                                                                         1 

*nf 

^              ^              ^              ^               ^         1 

^               f?           '^                             t,                              c-r 

1 

ut  que-ant  la    -    -   xis     re  -  so  -  na  -  re     fi  -  bris 

-CV^                                                                                  ^ 

^     /:/    ^     fO    ^ 

^  t^ 

rj    &'— '^    ^    ^    ^            ^ 

^    in    <r} 

r^                                           -          r^       -         ^        e^ 

mi    -    -    ra  ge    -    sto-rum    fa-mu-li    tu    -    o-rnm 

f?        '^        ^                    IT}        '^ 

-or         ^        t^        ^        ^      l^      l^       - 

—j^                                          ^ 

sol    -      -    ve  pol-lu-ti      la-bi-i     re  -  a   -    turn 

^f 

^            /r} 

\ 

^            ^            ^                          ^            ^ 

1 

-ZJ-                                                                                      T^                           ^                           -                              ,^ 

1 

1 

Sane    -        -     te 


Jo    -    ban  •  nes. 


As  will  be  observed,  the  melody  of  each  of  the 
first  six  lines  of  this  hymn  begins  one  tone 
higher  than  the  one  preceding.     Of  this  Guido 

40 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

took  advantage  by  teaching  his  pupils  to  men- 
tally associate  the  first  syllable  of  each  line  with 
its  corresponding  tone,  without  intending  how- 
ever that  these  syllables  should  supplant  the 
Latin  letters  then  in  common  use.  His  course 
of  reasoning  was  that  whoever  succeeded  by 
practice  in  impressing  thoroughly  on  his  mind 
the  beginning  of  these  six  verses  so  as  to  be  able 
to  intone  any  one  at  will,  would  be  able  to  sing 
any  one  of  the  six  tones  at  the  mention  of  its 
corresponding  syllable.  Out  of  this  beginning 
there  grew  the  art  of  solmisation,  which  was 
really  based  on  a  principle  known  to  and  prac- 
tically applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks — the  prin- 
ciple of  identifying  the  interrelation  of  tones 
by  means  of  groups  of  syllables  associated  with 
typical  groups  of  tones.  In  the  Greek  system 
the  series  of  fifteen  tones  which  made  up  the 
vocal  gamut  was  subdivided  into  groups  of  four 
tones  called  tetrachords,  each  of  the  tones  be- 
ing a  whole  step  or  tone  distant  from  the  other, 
excepting  the  first  and  second,  which  were  sep- 
arated by  a  half  step  or  semitone  only  (approx- 
imately speaking).  Each  tone  of  such  a  group 
had  its  name,  which,  regardless  of  the  actual 
pitch,  made  its  relation  to  the  other  tones  of  the 
group  apparent.  In  view  of  the  nature  of  the 
ecclesiastical  modes  Guido  subdivided  the  se- 
ries of  twenty-one  tones  in  use  in  his  time  into 

41 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


groups  of  six  tones,  hexachords,  in  which  the 
semitone  occurred  between  the  third  and  fourth 
tones.  For  these  groups  he  utilised  the  sylla- 
bles above  mentioned :  Ut^  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La. 

Notwithstanding  the  obvious  advantages  of 
the  hexachord  system,  its  practical  application, 
especially  to  melodies  of  greater  range  than  six 
tones,  required  the  observance  of  so  many  intri- 
cate rules — the  rules  of  mutation — that  the  art 
of  solmisation,  as  it  was  called,  was  by  no  means 
an  easy  one  to  master.  Nevertheless  it  proved 
such  a  boon  to  the  choristers  of  that  period, 
who  were  wont  to  cudgel  their  brains  with  de- 
ciphering the  neumes,  as  to  gain  for  Guido  the 
fame  of  being  one  of  the  greatest  musical  bene- 
factors of  all  times.  So  glowing  were  the  ac- 
counts of  the  virtues  of  the  new  method  which 
reached  the  Pope,  John  XIX.  (1024-1033),  that 
he  summoned  Guido  to  Rome  in  order  to  con- 
vince himself  of  their  truth.  Guido's  explana- 
tion proved  so  interesting  and  lucid  that  the 
Pope  did  not  rise  from  his  seat  until  he  had  suc- 
ceeded in  singing  a  verse  at  first  sight. 

As  the  ecclesiastical  modes  necessitated  the 
change  from  the  Greek  tetrachord  to  the  Gui- 
donian  hexachord,  so  modern  tonality  required 
the  substitution  of  the  group  of  seven  tones, 
the  heptachord,  for  that  of  six.  This  was  ac- 
complished towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 

43 


In  the  Early  Christian  Church 

century,  and  St,  formed   from   the  initials   of  ^^ 
"  Sancte  loannes,"  the  text  of  the  last  line  of 
the  hymn  quoted,  was  chosen  for  the  seventh 
syllable.     In  the  seventeenth  century,  probably 
at  the  suggestion   of  B.  Donati  (i  593-1647),  a  y 
celebrated  writer  on  music,  f//  was  supplanted  r' 
by  Boj  the  syllable  now  universally  in  use  in 
Italy,  England,  and  America. 

A  large  number  of  different  methods  were 
constructed  on  the  basis  of  solmisation  in  the 
course  of  time,  new  sets  of  syllables  with  new 
rules  of  application  being  proposed.  Of  all 
these  methods  only  the  three  named  now  re- 
main in  extensive  use.  The  practical  value  of 
the  syllabic  systems  of  reading  music  is  still 
under  discussion.  Only  within  the  last  few 
years  a  number  of  leading  musicians  in  England 

^  united  in  urging  the  abolishment  of  the  Tonic 
Sol-Fa  method,  originated  by  Miss  Glover 
(1785-1867)  and  perfected  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cur- 
wen  (1816-1880),  which   is   so  popular  in  that 

h  country,  and  therewith  reopened  a  controversy 
of  long  standing.  In  the  schools  of  America 
a  modified  movable  Do  system  still  holds  its 
ground  in  the  face  of  considerable  opposition.      '^" 


43 


Ill 

In  the  Medieval   Church 

WHILE  the  organisers  did  not  restrict 
themselves  to  the  use  of  only  those  in- 
tervals sanctioned  by  theorists  under  a  misap- 
prehension of  the  musical  system  of  the  Greeks, 
they  were  slow  to  venture  on  extemporising 
melodies  rhythmically  different  from  the  given 
one  for  fear  of  creating  confusion  among  the 
singers.  Nevertheless  the  seductive  charm  of 
creative  activity  led  to  experiments  in  this  di- 
rection too,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  time  the 
art  of  discant  originated.  Its  home  was  France, 
the  country  in  which  the  sense  of  harmony  ap- 
pears to  have  developed  most  rapidly  up  to  a 
certain  point. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  discant,  the  simple 
and  the  florid.  The  latter  of  these  signalised 
the  most  decided  improvement  on  the  orga- 
num,  for  its  rules  permitted  the  introduction  of 
ornaments,  so-called  Jleurettes,  which  involved 
the  adjustment  of  entire  groups  of  tones  to  a 
single  tone  of  the  given  melody  and  demon- 
strated the   availability   of    intervals  formerly 

44 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


prohibited  in  theory.  Discant  was  at  first  prac- 
tised in  two  parts  only,  to  the  lower  of  which, 
the  tenor  ("  the  holder  "),  the  task  of  carrying 
or  holding  the  cantus  firmus  was  intrusted, 
while  the  upper  one  took  charge  of  inventing 
the  discant,  the  counter-melody.  In  the  course 
of  time  additional  parts,  called  motettis,  triplum 
and  quadruplum,  were  added — terms  which  were 
not  intended  to  designate  particular  varieties 
of  voices  but  simply  to  indicate  the  order  of 
the  parts,  the  tenor  being  the  lowest.  To  tri- 
plum, the  "  third  "  part,  treble,  the  English  des- 
ignation for  the  highest  voice  in  the  chorus  is 
traced.  Its  German  equivalent  diskant  comes 
from  discant.  The  term  soprano,  the  "  high- 
est" is  of  later  origin.  For  motetus,  the  ety- 
mology of  which  is  obscure,  the  designations 
meditis  and  alius ^  the  '*  middle  "  and  "  high  " 
parts  respectively,  were  subsequently  adopted, 
as  was  bassus,  "  base,"  for  the  lowest  part. 

It  is  evident  that  to  invent  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment  more  or  less  florid  companion  melodies 
required,  besides  natural  aptitude,  a  degree  of 
judgment  which  could  be  attained  only  by  long 
study  and  experience.  This  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  the  practice  of  discant  was  intrusted 
to  men  only  and  was  limited  for  a  time  to  two 
or  at  most  three  parts.  When,  however,  as 
was  to  be  expected,  certain  melodic  turns  and 

45 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  methods  of  applying  them  became  con- 
ventional, boys  could  be  taught  to  fit  in  simple 
parts,  and  discanting  in  four  and  more  voices 
became  practicable. 

The  impulse  which  the  art  of  discant  gave  to 
choral  culture  in  France  was  extraordinary. 
The  singing  schools  of  France  had  ever  since 
their  establishment  in  the  sixth  century  enjoyed 
the  reputation  of  being  among  the  best  in  Chris- 
tendom. In  promoting  the  knowledge  of  dis- 
canting they  became  superior  to  all  others. 
Not  only  were  the  institutions  already  in  exist- 
ence provided  with  the  best  instructors  of  the 
new  style,  but  schools,  maitrisesy  were  founded 
for  the  special  purpose  of  teaching  it  to  the 
young,  and  the  royal  chapel,  organised  by  Pepin 
in  752,  was  turned  at  the  command  of  Philip 
IV.  (1285-1304)  into  a  body  of  model  discanters. 
The  practice  of  discanting  actually  became  a 
mania.  The  members  of  the  choruses  and  chap- 
els who  were  particularly  proficient  in  this  art 
were  in  great  demand,  and  the  standing  of  a 
body  of  singers  was  decided  by  the  number  and 
excellence  of  the  discanters  of  which  it  could 
boast.  As  with  constant  practice  the  singers 
acquired  the  ability  to  extemporise  with  more 
freedom,  they  took  pride  in  embellishing  their 
part  more  and  more  richly,  so  that,  in  addition 
to  inventiveness  and  judgment,  technical  skill 

46 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


in  vocalisation  became  indispensable  to  their 
equipment. 

In  their  efforts  to  outdo  their  colleagues  some 
discanters  conceived  the  idea  of  singing  two  or 
even  three  given,  generally  well  known  melo- 
dies at  the  same  time,  making  such  changes 
only  as  were  necessary  to  avoid  too  disagree- 
able consequences.  Confusion  became  worse 
confounded  when  other  voices  attempted  to 
add  something  new  to  such  combinations.  The 
melodies  chosen  for  elaboration  were  not  only 
Gregorian  chants  but  folk-melodies  as  well,  the 
original  words  of  which  were  retained  without 
any  thought  and  certainly  without  any  inten- 
tion of  offending  piety.  This  practice,  which 
was  not  discontinued  until  towards  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was,  notwithstanding 
its  objectionable  features,  of  benefit  to  music, 
because  it  helped  to  counteract  the  prevailing 
mechanical,  calculative  tendency  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  vitalising  power  of  the  French 
folk-song. 

So  long  as  two  or  even  as  many  as  four  sing- 
ers accustomed  to  each  other's  methods  and 
idiosyncrasies  joined  in  discanting,  serious  mis- 
understandings could  be  avoided,  but  when  a 
whole  chorus  attempted  to  do  so,  disastrous  re- 
sults were  inevitable.  This  hastened  the  inven- 
tion and  perfection  of  a  system  of  notation  by 

47 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


means  of  which  the  relative  duration  of  tones 
could  be  designated.  It  was  the  outcome  of  a 
series  of  practical  experiments  made  one  by 
one  by  the  discanters,  not  the  discovery  of  a 
single  mind.  Music  written  according  to  this 
system  was  called  measured  music,  musica  men- 
surata,  in  contradistinction  to  plain  music,  mu- 
sica plana,  the  unisonous  Gregorian  chant,  in 
which  the  duration  of  tones  was  originally  de- 
termined by  the  prosodical  rules  governing  the 
Latin  text.  The  chorale  notes  in  which  the 
Gregorian  chant  is  written  to  this  day,  although 
identical  in  shape  with  the  measured  notes,  do 
not  stand  for  definite  relative  values.  They  are 
nothing  more  than  simplified  neumes. 

One  of  the  first  treatises  on  measured  music 
was  compiled  either  by  a  Franco  of  Cologne, 
who  lived  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh 
century,  or  by  one  of  several  Francos  who  are 
believed  to  have  flourished  a  century  or  more 
later.  The  characters  in  use  about  that  period 
were  neumes  which  had  been  transformed  for 
practical  reasons  into  notes  with  black  square, 
oblong,  and  lozenge-shaped  heads.  Each  of 
these  notes  represented  twice  the  value  of  one 
of  the  next  lower  denomination  until  the  church 
composers  adopted  the  ratio  of  three  to  one 
also,  as  symbolical  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  for 
a  time  (during  the  twelfth  arid  thirteenth  cen- 

48 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


turies)  wrote  almost  exclusively  in  triple  metre. 
The  complications  to  which  this  subdivision  of 
the  same  symbols  into  different  relative  values 
gave  rise,  were  increased  by  an  intricate  system 
of  metrical  signatures  and  rules  which  made 
of  measured  music  a  mathematical  science  and 
placed  almost  insurmountable  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  the  choristers  who  were  compelled 
to  decipher  them.  Yet  the  general  principle 
upon  which  measured  music  rested  furnished 
the  basis  for  modern  musical  notation. 

Measured  music  did  not  introduce  the  ele- 
ment of  rhythmic  organisation  into  the  tone- 
art.  The  measured  notes  were  simply  technical 
devices  calculated  to  facilitate  singing  in  parts. 
For  rhythmic  design,  by  which  is  meant  the 
symmetrical  arrangement  of  tone  groups  of 
clearly  comprehensible  rhythmic  structure, 
music  is  not  indebted  to  the  works  of  the 
church  composers,  even  the  greatest  among 
them,  but  to  the  folk-song  and  the  instrumental 
dance-forms  cultivated  by  the  people. 

In  the  hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  about 
1 1 50  to  1300,  during  which  measured  music 
was  practised  side  by  side  and  in  connection 
with  discant,  such  progress  was  made  in  the 
formulation  of  rules  for  writing  in  a  number  of 
parts  that  the  close  of  the  period  of  tentative 
effort  began  to  dawn  and  musical  composition 

49 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


began  to  enter  the  sphere  of  art, — the  art  of 
counterpoint.  This  differed  from  written  dis- 
cant  and  was  superior  to  it  in  that  the  parts 
added  to  one  or  two  given  melodies  were  not 
tones  or  tone  groups  strung  together  at  random, 
but  melodies  as  organic  and  coherent  as  the  ones 
with  which  they  were  to  be  associated.  As, 
notwithstanding  the  apparent  individuality  of 
each  melody,  every  tone  in  its  relation  to  the 
other  simultaneously  sounding  tones  was  sub- 
ject to  the  severe  rules  of  polyphony  then  con- 
sidered binding,  pieces  so  constructed  were 
said  to  be  in  counterpoint,  point  against  point, 
or  note  against  note. 

Neither  political  nor  artistic  conditions  in 
France  were  favourable  to  the  full  development 
of  the  new  style  of  music  which  had  originated 
there.  It  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Netherlands  to 
bring  the  technics  of  counterpoint  to  perfec- 
tion in  the  course  of  the  two  hundred  years 
following.  From  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Flemish  masters  held  almost  exclusive  sway 
over  the  musical  destinies  of  Europe. 

Although  with  counterpoint  composition  in 
the  real  sense  of  the  word  was  introduced  and 
a  limit  was  set  to  the  extemporaneous  efforts 
of  the  choristers,  progress  in  music  continued 
to  rest  largely  with  these,  for  with  but  few  ex- 

50 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


ceptions  the  great  church  composers  were 
members  of  celebrated  choirs  and  gained 
their  knowledge  and  experience  in  choristers* 
schools.  Nor  was  the  art  of  discant  neglected 
as  the  practice  of  carefully  writing  out  all 
the  parts  of  a  choral  composition  obtained 
vogue.  The  cantus  supra  librum  or  contrapunto 
a  mente,  as  mental  counterpoint  was  called  in 
contradistinction  to  written  counterpoint,  af- 
forded a  rich  field  to  singers  for  the  exercise  of 
their  talents  in  discanting.  Mental  counter- 
point, extemporising  in  the  contrapuntal  style, 
was  practised  in  the  churches  of  Italy  up  to  the 
present  century,  choristers  versed  in  it  being 
much  sought  and  more  liberally  remunerated 
than  those  who  could  sing  by  note  only.  Im- 
provising was  considered  the  supreme  test  of 
musicianship.  On  his  Italian  tour  of  1770, 
Mozart,  then  a  lad  of  fourteen,  was  frequently 
requested  to  submit  to  this  ordeal  and  was  ac- 
claimed a  genius  on  the  strength  of  the  ease 
with  which  he  passed  it ;  and  sixty  years  later 
Mendelssohn  challenged  universal  admiration 
by  the  occasional  display  of  his  gift  of  improv- 
isation. That  Bach  required  his  pupils  to  play 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment  accompaniments  in 
the  contrapuntal  manner  is  well  known. 

Difficult  as  it  was  to  master  the  intricacies  of 
reading  measured  notation  under  any  circum- 

51 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


stances,  it  was  made  doubly  so  by  the  aberra- 
tions into  which  composers  were  led  in  their 
efforts  to  arrive  at  the  highest  possible  degree 
of  excellence  in  the  technics  of  composition. 
To  decipher  the  contrapuntal  riddles  which 
the  choristers  were  expected  to  solve  almost 
offhand  was  a  task  worthy  of  the  efforts  of  the 
best  educated  musician.  These  riddles  were 
not  originally  thought  out  for  their  own  sake 
or  in  order  to  puzzle  the  singer,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  the  composer  to  keep  in- 
tact, to  the  eye  at  least,  the  contours  of  the 
prescribed  short  Gregorian  chant  or  of  the 
folk-song  on  which  an  entire  mass  or  a  long 
motet  (an  elaborate  form  of  polyphonic  com- 
position on  freely  chosen  sacred  words)  was 
based.  As  the  constant  repetition  by  the  tenor 
of  the  same  melody  would  have  unavoidably 
become  monotonous,  the  composer  formed 
new  melodies  without  changing  the  notation 
of  the  original  one  by  requiring  the  singers  to 
resort  to  such  devices  as  reading  the  notes 
backward ;  reversing  the  direction  of  the  in- 
tervals without  altering  the  intervals  them- 
selves ;  lengthening  or  shortening  one  or  more 
tones ;  or  introducing  occasional  rests.  The 
rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  singers,  which 
were  generally  given  in  metaphorical  mottoes 
often   couched   in   obscure   Latin  verse,   were 

52 


In  the  Mediseval  Church 


called  canons,  whence  the  designation  canon, 
now  applied  to  a  composition  constructed 
strictly  according  to  the  rules  of  imitation. 

Quite  as  difficult  to  figure  out  were  the  in- 
tricacies which  composers  delighted  in  creat- 
ing on  the  basis  of  the  subtle  metrical  system 
of  measured  music.  It  became  customary  to 
change  the  metre  frequently  in  the  course  of  a 
piece,  not  uniformly  in  all  the  parts,  but  in 
each  part  independent  of  the  others,  so  that  it 
was  often  necessary  to  sing  simultaneously 
groups,  which,  consisting  of  such  combinations 
as  those  of  four,  five,  eight  and  twelve  tones, 
clashed  metrically.  These  were  indicated  not 
by  the  simple  methods  now  employed  but  by 
means  of  signatures  with  the  application  of 
which  to  the  notes,  which  remained  unaltered 
in  shape,  the  singer  was  expected  to  be  per- 
fectly familiar.  The  climax  of  artifice,  however, 
was  reached  when  composers  wrote  masses  or 
motets  for  four  or  more  parts  on  one  stave,  the 
notes  on  which  each  of  the  parts  was  com- 
pelled to  read  in  a  different  metre  and  even  in 
frequently  changing  metres.  In  the  following 
example  the  opening  measures  of  such  a  riddle, 
a  "  fugue  for  four  parts  out  of  a  single  one  "  by 
Pierre  de  la  Rue  (born  about  1450),  are  given 
in  their  original  form  and  in  their  solution. 
On  examination  it  will  be  found  that  the  same 

53 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


melody  is  assigned  to  all  the  four  parts  in  as 
many  different  metres. 

Fuga  qnatnor  vocum  ex  unica  (Fetms  TJatensis{. 


H 


A    w    q 


3X=XS 


Xc 


:etc. 


H$5= 


Solution. 


I 


te 


PLI^ 


:^=iit 


li^EZlt 


i^ 


IE 


:a- 


^t 


t=:t^. 


^ 


^iE 


The  introduction  of  the  more  elaborate  forms 
of  discant  and  counterpoint  made  necessary 
the  organisation  of  select  choirs  of  adults  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  practice  of  the  florid 
style,  while  the  ordinary  choirs  of  boys  and 
men  confined  their  efforts  to  the  Gregorian 
chants  harmonised  in  a  rhythmically  uniform 
manner.  Being  dependent  on  the  select  choirs 
for  the  performance  of  their  works,  composers 
were,  therefore,  limited  to  the  comparatively 
small  compass  of  male  voices.  Efforts  to  find 
a  way  out  of  this  serious  difficulty  suggested 

54 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


the  expedient  of  singing  in  falsetto,  which  by 
the  fifteenth  century  resulted  in  the  extension 
of  the  vocal  scale  to  three  octaves,  whereas  in 
the  eleventh  century  it  had  covered  little  more 
than  two  octaves,  reaching  up  to  about  B 
(on  the  third  line  of  the  stave  with  the  G  or 
treble  clef).  The  male  alto  or  counter-tenor, 
generally  a  baritone  or  bass  trained  in  the  use 
of  the  falsetto,  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  cathe- 
dral choirs  and  glee  clubs  of  England.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  range  admissible  in 
choral  music  was  practically  exhausted  by  the 
discovery  in  Spain  of  a  secret  which  enabled 
male  singers  to  command  the  whole  compass 
of  the  boy  or  woman  soprano.  These  Spanish 
singers  were  in  great  demand  until  they  were 
in  part  displaced  in  the  course  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  the  artificial  male  sopranos, 
who  eventually  became  the  tyrants  of  the  Ital- 
ian operatic  stage.  In  the  church  choirs  of 
Italy  and  Southern  Germany  such  singers  were 
preferably  employed  as  principals,  though  not 
to  the  exclusion  of  boys  and  natural  falsettos, 
up  to  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1745,  when 
Haydn  was  a  member  of  the  choir  of  St. 
Stephen's,  Vienna,  there  were  about  a  dozen 
artificial  male  sopranos  in  the  Austrian  Impe- 
rial chapel.  In  Italy  they  are  not  unknown  at 
the  present  day.    In  France  and  England,  how- 

55 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


ever,  their  sphere  of  activity  was  confined  to 
the  Italian  opera,  boy  sopranos  being  preferred 
for  choirs. 

The  mediaeval  composers  divided  the  voices 
at  their  disposal  into  two  classes  :  the  acute,  em- 
bracing boys*  voices  and  the  voices  of  the  natu- 
ral and  artificial  adult  male  sopranos  and  altos; 
and  the  grave,  embracing  men's  voices  in  their 
normal  state.  The  parts  for  the  former  they 
called  cantus  and  altus,  those  for  the  latter  tenor 
and  bassus.  In  employing  the  different  higher 
or  lower  varieties  of  these  classes  with  a  view 
towards  producing  the  desired  tone  effects  they 
displayed  the  greatest  skill,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  clearly  designating  these  varieties  made 
use  of  an  elaborate  system  of  clefs.  The  classi- 
fication of  voices  now  current  is,  of  course,  of 
recent  date  and  gradually  crystallised  under 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  opera  singers  and 
composers. 

No  less  influential  than  the  Flemish  com- 
posers were  the  Flemish  choristers.  It  was 
largely  owing  to  the  superiority  of  the  latter 
that  church  choirs  assumed  the  dignity  of  ar- 
tistic institutions  and  were  converted  from 
bodies  of  clericals  instructed  by  monks  in  the 
tradition  of  the  Church,  into  organisations  of 
professional  singers  and  musicians  trained  by 
the   best  masters  and  ambitious  of  promotion 

56 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


and  fame.  The  Flemish  singers  were  cele- 
brated all  over  Europe.  In  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany  it  was  a  cause  for  constant  complaint 
that  these  foreign  choristers  were  in  greater 
demand  and  more  liberally  remunerated  than 
the  native  ones.  It  was  the  highest  ambition 
of  kings  and  princes  to  have  in  their  chapels  as 
many  Netherlanders  as  possible  and,  above  all, 
to  be  able  to  boast  of  a  Netherland  chapel  mas- 
ter, for  whom  no  honours  and  emoluments  were 
considered  too  great. 

The  history  of  the  chapel  of  Duke  Albert  of 
Munich,  of  which  Orlando  di  Lasso  (i 532-1 594), 
the  only  Flemish  master  to  be  compared  with 
Palestrina,  was  conductor,  may  serve  to  illus- 
trate how  some  of  the  celebrated  choirs  of  that 
time  were  organised  and  trained.  Through 
the  influence  of  the  fabulously  wealthy  house 
of  the  Fuggers,  Lasso  was  induced  to  leave 
Antwerp  and  take  up  his  residence  in  Munich. 
He  was  empowered  to  bring  with  him  his  best 
singers  and  to  secure  additional  ones,  as  well 
as  the  most  competent  instrumentalists,  wher- 
ever they  could  be  iound  in  all  Europe.  The 
boys  were  domiciled  in  his  own  house,  towards 
the  purchase  of  which  the  Duke  had  contributed 
a  large  sum.  Here  they  were  under  the  per- 
sonal supervision  of  Lasso,  who  instructed  them 
in  the  art  of  singing  and  in  the  theory  of  music, 

57 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


not,  however,  to  the  neglect  of  their  general 
education.  Appreciative  of  the  advantages  of 
studying  under  so  great  a  master,  many  of  the 
boys  returned  after  their  voices  had  changed, 
so  that  in  the  course  of  time  the  chapel  con- 
sisted of  boys  and  men  who,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  had  been  trained  from  the  very 
beginning  by  Lasso  himself.  This  choir  re- 
mained under  his  direction  for  thirty-seven 
years.  *The  chapel  in  its  entirety  embraced 
r  twelve  basses,  fifteen  tenors,  thirteen  adult  male 
altos,  sixteen  boy  sopranos,  five  or  six  artificial 
male  sopranos  {musici),  and  thirty  instrumental- 
ists. With  such  resources  at  his  command 
Lasso,  who  according  to  all  accounts  was  not 
only  a  severe  disciplinarian  but  an  inspiring 
conductor  as  well,  must  have  attained  results 
of  the  surpassing  excellence  6f  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  form  an  adequate  conception.  The 
singing  of  the  choir  is  said  to  have  been  su- 
premely beautiful  in  quality  and  perfectly  bal- 
anced, and  not  to  have  been  marred  by  the 
slightest  deviation  from  the  pitch  even  in  the 
longest  unaccompanied  composition.  At  ban- 
^  quets  it  was  customary  for  the  orchestra  to  play 
'  until  dessert  had  been  served,  when  the  choir 
under  the  personal  direction  of  Lasso  per- 
formed a  programme  consisting  of  choruses, 
and  quartets  and  trios  given  by  picked  voices. 

58 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


Such  establishments,  however,  were  not  often 
to  be  found  outside  royal  courts,  wherefore 
they  were  called  scholce  palatince,  Imperial  sing- 
ing schools,  while  the  most  highly  developed 
polyphonic  style  of  singing,  to  which  such  bod- 
ies only  were  perfectly  equal,  was  called  the 
mos  palatinusy  the  Imperial  style  up  to  the  sev- 
enteenth century. 

As  was  inevitable,  a  reaction  against  artifi- 
ciality in  composition  set  in  after  the  possi- 
bilities of  contrapuntal  technics  had  been  fully 
exploited  by  the  Flemish  masters,  and  when 
the  power  of  sensuous  beauty  inherent  in  har- 
mony began  to  assert  itself.  Towards  this  the 
growing  cultivation  of  secular  music  largely 
contributed.  Although  in  secular  music  too 
the  polyphonic  style  was  the  prevailing  one, 
folk-songs  naturally  suggested  a  less  severe 
treatment  than  the  mass.  Especially  was  this 
the  case  with  the  shorter  forms,  such  as  the 
"  Frottole,"  street  songs,  the  "  Cacce,"  hunting 
songs,  the  "  Ballate,"  dance  songs,  and  the  "Fa- 
las,"  bright,  rapid  movements  sung  to  unmean- 
ing syllables.  The  most  highly  organised  type 
of  secular  music  was  the  madrigal — usually 
interpreted  to  signify  a  shepherd's  song — to 
which  the  church  composers  devoted  particu- 
lar attention,  and  which  was  subsequently 
transferred  to  the  early  operas. 

59 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


The  singing  of  madrigals  and  contrapuntal 
arrangements  of  popular  songs  was  extensively 
practised  in  private  circles  and  was  encour- 
aged, even  participated  in,  by  the  nobility. 
Andreas  Pevernage  (i  543-1 591),  master  of  sing- 
ing in  the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp,  arranged 
weekly  choral  performances  in  his  home  for  the 
purpose  of  familiarising  his  friends  with  the 
newest  works  in  choral  literature.  In  Paris 
Baif,  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Poetry  and 
Music,  gave  weekly  choral  entertainments  in 
which  Charles  IX.  (King  of  France  1 560-1 584), 
who  was  a  well  trained  tenor  singer,  partici- 
pated. In  Italy  chorus  singing  was  fostered  at 
the  courts  of  the  nobility,  such  as  the  Sforza  at 
Mantua,  the  Este  at  Milan,  and  the  Medici  at 
Florence;  and  in  Rome  Leo  X.  (Pope  1513- 
1521)  supported  at  great  expense  a  number  of 
celebrated  virtuosi  to  entertain  him  with  play- 
ing and  singing  secular  music. 

While  the  Flemish  composers  made  disciples 
among  the  Italians  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  not  until  a  hun- 
dred years  later  that  the  master  appeared  who 
turned  the  eyes  of  the  musical  world  from  the 
Netherlands  to  Italy.  That  master  was  Pales- 
trina  (i  526-1 594),  and  the  type  of  music  which 
he  created  was  not  an  Italian  one,  but  the 
highest    and    purest  type    of  unaccompanied 

60 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


polyphonic  ecclesiastical  music  of  all  coun- 
tries and  of  all  times. 

The  technical  superiority  of  Palestrina's  mu- 
sic lies  in  this — that  while  each  and  every  mel- 
ody of  the  polyphonic  structure  is  vocally  flu- 
ent and  individually  expressive,  and  is  of  equal 
significance  with  every  other  melody,  the  har- 
monies which  result  from  the  union  of  all  the 
melodies  are  so  supremely  beautiful  and  suc- 
ceed each  other  so  naturally  as  to  preclude  the 
thought  of  calculation.  It  is  the  apparent  art- 
lessness  of  the  tone  combinations,  which  are 
really  the  product  of  the  most  profound  learn- 
ing, that  is  so  eloquent  of  his  consummate  skill, 
for  the  simplest  harmonic  progressions  often 
prove  on  close  examination  to  rest  on  the  most 
intricate  forms  of  imitation. 

Of  much  greater  importance,  however,  than 
the  technical  are  the  spiritual  qualities  of  his 
music.  Palestrina's  conception  of  what  the 
music  of  the  Roman  Church  should  be  was  in 
perfect  accord  with  the  principle  held  by  the 
Early  Church  :  that  music  should  form  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  liturgy  and  add  to  its  impres- 
siveness.  This  had  been  lost  sight  of  in  the 
effort  to  develop  the  mechanics  of  composition. 
Palestrina  by  force  of  his  sovereign  command 
of  all  possible  resources  created  a  type  which, 
notwithstanding  its  high  artistic  organisation, 

6x 


/ 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


never  obtrudes  its  own  beauty,  but  reflects,  or 
perhaps  it  might  be  better  to  say  refracts,  in  its 
exalted  and  chaste  purity  the  ineffable  mys- 
teries symbolised  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Church.  For  its  full  effect,  therefore,  his  music 
is  dependent  on  its  association  with  the  cere- 
monies, the  spiritual  contemplation  of  which 
had  inspired  it  to  the  smallest  detail.  No  sen- 
suous melodies,  no  dissonant,  tension-creating 
harmonies,  no  abrupt  rhythms  distract  the 
thoughts  and  excite  the  sensibilities.  Chains  of 
consonant  chords  growing  out  of  the  combina- 
tion of  smoothly  flowing,  closely  interwoven 
parts,  the  contours  of  which  are  all  but  lost  in 
the  maze  of  tones,  lull  the  mind  into  that  state 
of  submission  to  indefinite  impressions  which 
makes  it  susceptible  to  the  mystic  influence  of 
the  ceremonial  and  turns  it  away  from  worldly 
things. 

Such  melodies  and  harmonies  as  Palestrina 
wrote  and  such  effects  as  he  produced  by 
different  groupings  of  the  voices  were  pos- 
sible only  under  the  system  of  ecclesiastical 
modes ;  to  the  modern  system  of  tonality  they 
are  foreign.  Progress  on  the  lines  followed  by 
Palestrina  was  impossible.  With  him  the  gold- 
en era  of  vocal  counterpoint  came  to  an  end. 
Even  during  his  lifetime  the  opponents  of  po- 
lyphony, the  champions  of  the  dramatic  style, 

62 


In  the  Mediseval  Church 


began  to  assert  themselves,  and  instrumental 
music  to  encroach  on  the  domain  of  vocal  music. 
Up  to  1305  the  papal  chapel  at  Rome,  or  sing- 
ing guild,  as  it  was  then  called,  had  been  the 
means  of  preserving  the  Gregorian  musical  rit- 
ual as  accurately  as  was  possible  by  tradition. 
In  that  year,  however,  a  new  choir  was  formed 
at  Avignon,  whither  the  pontifical  court  had 
been  transferred.  Under  Benedict  (Pope  1334- 
1342)  such  emoluments,  generally  in  the  shape 
of  ecclesiastical  preferments  to  which  special  in- 
dulgences were  annexed,  were  assured  the  mem- 
bers of  this  choir  that  the  services  of  the  most 
celebrated  singers  and  composers  of  France 
and  the  Netherlands  could  be  secured.  In  con- 
sequence the  chapel,  now  numbering  twelve, 
became  an  organisation  of  virtuosi  and  musi- 
cians whose  pride  lay  in  the  introduction  of  the 
most  advanced  methods.  This  new  choir  was 
part  of  the  brilliant  retinue  with  which  Gregory 
re-entered  Rome  on  January  17,  1377.  Under 
the  name  of  pontifical  chapel  it  supplanted  the 
old  singing  school  and,  liberally  endowed  by 
Eugene  IV.  (Pope  1431-1447),  developed  into  a 
cosmopolitan  university  for  church  music,  in 
which  foreign  artists  predominated  until  Ro- 
man composers  and  singers  had  mastered  the 
polyphonic  style.  The  number  of  its  members 
was  increased  from  twelve  to  twenty-four,  and 

63 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


finally  to  thirty-two,  the  figure  which  has  rep- 
resented its  normal  strength  since  1625.  About 
the  year  1441  the  places  of  the  boy  choristers 
were  taken  by  adult  falsetto  singers,  largely 
Spaniards.  The  first  artificial  soprano  was 
admitted  into  the  choir  in  1601.  This  class  of 
voices  has  been  represented  in  the  papal  chapel 
ever  since,  subject  to  certain  conditions.  The 
Sistine  Chapel,  famous  for  the  frescoes  by  Mich- 
ael Angelo,  was  added  to  the  Vatican  in  1473  by 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  and  as  it  was  here  that  the  pa- 
pal choir  daily  officiated,  the  choir  itself  became 
known  by  that  name.  In  the  same  year  Sixtus 
IV.  erected  a  choral  chapel  in  St.  Peter's  which 
he  provided  with  a  body  of  choristers  who  were 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  papal  singers. 
This  choir,  consisting  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
boys  and  men,  which  was  called  the  Julian 
Chapel  after  it  had  been  liberally  endowed  by 
Pope  Julius  II.  (1503-15 13),  has  remained  to  the 
present  day  the  official  choral  body  of  the  Basil- 
ica of  St.  Peter.  Its  singing  is  often  taken  by 
the  uninformed  for  that  of  the  Sistine  Chapel. 
The  latter  was  practically  disbanded  when  on 
September  20,  1870,  the  Sardinian  troops  en- 
tered Rome  and  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Pope  came  to  an  end,  although  its  members  are 
gathered  together  on  special  occasions  to  sing 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel.     Don  Lorenzo  Perosi,  the 

64 


In  the  Mediaeval  Church 


young  composer  in  whom  the  devotees  of  Ital- 
ian church  music  are  placing  their  hopes,  was 
appointed  honorary  master  of  the  papal  chapel 
in  1898.  It  is  said  that  he  is  making  efforts  to 
obtain  permission  to  introduce  women's  voices 
into  the  choir.  While  the  singing  of  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel  has  always  been  unaccompanied, 
the  Julian  Chapel  has  the  support  of  two  organs, 
and  two  groups  of  double  basses  and  'cellos, 
placed  opposite  each  other  with  the  two  sections 
into  which  the  choir  is  divided  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  antiphonal  effects. 

The  Sistine  Chapel,  with  which  the  activity 
of  Palestrina  as  a  composer  was  so  long  identi- 
fied, has  remained  the  authority  for  the  proper 
performance  of  his  music.  The  traditions  es- 
sential thereto  concern  not  only  unimportant 
details  but  radical  features  of  the  Palestrina 
style.  They  affect  even  the  very  tones  them- 
selves, for  on  account  of  theoretical  punctilios 
chromatic  signs  were  very  sparingly  used  in 
writing,  singers  being  expected  to  introduce 
them  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  musica 
ficta,  artificial  music.  This  was  strikingly  il- 
lustrated when  the  choristers  of  the  Imperial 
chapel  at  Vienna  attempted  to  sing  the  cele- 
brated Miserere  by  Allegri  (i 584-1662),  which 
Mozart  as  a  lad  of  fourteen  wrote  out  from 
memory  after  having  heard  it  twice.    As  a  spe- 

65 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


cial  favour  a  faithful  copy  of  this  Miserere,  which 
was  guarded  with  jealous  care  by  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  was  sent  to  Emperor  Leopold  (1640- 
1705);  yet  the  effect  of  its  performance  by  the 
Imperial  choir  was  so  disappointing,  owing  to 
the  unfamiliarity  of  the  singers  with  the  cor- 
rect reading  of  the  text,  the  traditional  orna- 
ments, and  the  proper  manner  of  shading  the 
music,  that  the  papal  chapel  master  was  un- 
justly accused  of  having  forwarded  a  garbled 
version.  Besides  introducing  the  abellimenti^ 
as  the  unwritten  ornaments  are  called,  the 
Sistine  choristers  constantly  varied  the  tempo 
and  produced  peculiar  tonal  effects  by  means 
of  imperceptibly  increasing  and  decreasing  the 
number  of  voices  in  accord  with  certain  acts  of 
the  celebrant  at  the  altar,  all  of  which  was 
necessary  to  the  realisation  of  the  composer's 
purpose.  As  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
compositions  in  the  repertory  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  were  written  by  the  members  them- 
selves, the  application  of  the  methods  in  vogue 
with  that  body  of  singers  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion. Unless  performed  accordingly,  such 
compositions  must,  therefore,  fail  of  fully  ex- 
pressing the  authors*  intentions. 


66 


IV 

After  the  Reformation 

WHEN  in  597  St.  Augustine  accompanied 
by  a  number  of  Roman  choristers  came 
to  the  county  of  Kent  to  introduce  Gregorian 
song  into  England,  his  teachings  and  the  in- 
struction of  his  associates  were  so  eagerly  re- 
ceived and  intelligently  followed  that  in  a  short 
time  English  singers  became  famous  the  whole 
Continent  over.  Since  then  choral  culture  in 
England  has  not  suffered  any  interruption  save 
that  which  took  place  from  1649  to  1660  under 
the  Commonwealth.  Not  only  were  the  mo- 
nastic and  cathedral  schools,  modelled  after 
those  of  Rome,  of  the  best,  and  the  endowments 
for  ecclesiastical  and  lay  choristers  ample,  but 
secular  institutions  too  for  the  propagation  of 
musical  learning  were  encouraged  by  the  clergy. 
In  849  a  chair  of  music  was  created  in  the  Ox- 
ford High  School,  though  in  all  probability  for 
the  study  of  music  as  a  science  only,  and  as 
early  as  1463  the  University  of  Cambridge  con- 
ferred the  degrees  of  bachelor  and  doctor  of 

67 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


n 


music.  Gerald  de  Berry  (i  146-1220),  Bishop  of 
St.  David's,  said  of  the  Welsh  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  north  of  England  that  they  did  not 
sing  in  unison  like  the  inhabitants  of  other 
countries  but  in  as  many  parts  as  there  were 
singers,  who  all  **  finally  unite  in  consonance 
and  organic  melody  under  the  softness  of  B  flat." 
On  the  borders  of  Yorkshire  he  found  that  the 
people  sang  in  two  parts  only,  a  habit  which 
was  so  deeply  rooted  that  the  children  adopted 
it  as  soon  as  they  began  to  sing.  Foreigners 
who  visited  England  during  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury declared  the  chorus  singing  in  that  coun- 
try to  be  equal  to  any  to  be  heard  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  asserted  that  in  the  cultivation  of 
secular  music  the  English  were  in  advance  of 
all  other  peoples.  |  During  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth (i  558-1603)  the  city  of  London  advertised 
the  musical  abilities  of  the  boys  educated  in 
Bridewell  and  Christ's  Hospital  as  a  means  of 
commending  them  as  servants,  apprentices,  or 
husbandmen.  Even  while  the  organum  and 
discant  were  in  a  rudimentary  state  in  France 
there  was  practised  in  England  the  more  ma- 
ture method  of  harmonising  melodies  known  as 
the  Fa-burden  {faux  hour  don)  y  which  consisted 
in  accompanying  each  tone  of  a  given  melody 
with  its  third  and  sixth,  whereby  an  unbroken 
series  of  consonant  chords   was  formed  ;  and 

68 


After  the  Reformation 


evidences  are  accumulating  that  the  art  of  coun- 
terpoint too  originated  in  England,  and  that 
Dunstable  (died  1453),  a  native  of  Dunstable  in 
Berfordshire,  was  one  of  its  earliest  exponents. 
Then  for  a  time  English  composers  yielded 
precedence  to  their  Flemish  contemporaries, 
and  while  they  achieved  admirable  results  in 
the  current  forms  of  the  mass,  motet,  and  mad- 
rigal, it  remained  for  the  Reformation  to  in- 
spire them  with  the  energy  necessary  to  the 
establishment  of  an  English  national  school  of 
music. 

Although  since  the  days  of  Wycliffe  (died 
1384)  psalms  were  chanted  m  English,  it  was 
not  until  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
cfintiiry^  when  Marbeck's  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  appeared,  that  the  musical  possibilities 
inherent  in  the  English  cathedral  service  be- 
gan  to  be  duly  appreciated  and  the  unlimited 
field  of  activity  to  be  exploited  which  presented 
itself  in  the  harmonisation,  and  in  the  adaptation 
of  plain  song  melodies  to  English  words,  in  the 
composition  of  hymns  to  the  metrical  transcrip- 
tions of  the  psalms,  and  in  the  setting  of  the 
canticles  in  the  form  of  anthems. 

For  the  hymns  English  composers  did  not 
have  such  resources  to  fall  back  upon  as 
Luther  and  his  collaborators  had  found  in  the 
German  folk-melodies.     Hymn  texts,  therefore, 

69 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


seem  for  a  time  to  have  been  composed  some- 
what elaborately  after  the  manner  of  short 
motets.  Soon,  however,  such  settings  gave 
way  to  the  popular  tunes  in  use  among  the 
Protestants  at  Geneva.  These  together  with 
others  of  the  same  character,  traceable  partly 
to  German  and  partly  to  English  sources,  fur- 
nished the  nucleus  of  early  English  hymnody. 

f^The  first   collection  of   hymn   tunes   for   four 

^  voices,  harmonised  in  the  plainest  manner  with 
the  melody  in  the  tenor,  appeared  in  1563.  In 
a  collection  published  in  1591  the  melody  was 
given  to  the  highest  part,  probably  for  the  first 
time.  The  most  celebrated  volume  of  hymns, 
however,  was  the  one  edited  by  Ravens- 
croft  and  issued  in  162 1.  Not  only  are  the 
tunes  of  this  collection  truly  devotional,  but 
their  arrangements  in  plain  counterpoint,  with 
the  melody  in  the  tenor,  are  models  of  good 
taste  and  in  their  very  simplicity  disclose  per- 
fect command  of  the  technics  of  polyphonic 
writing.  That  such  melodies  and  such  settings 
should  have  been  cast  aside  for  the  inferior, 
unchurchly  ones  which  obtained  vogue  after 
the  Restoration  and  are  in  common  use  to-day, 
is  to  be  deeply  deplored. 

irV  A  distinctively  English  form  of  church  mu- 
sic, and  the  form  in  which  the  achievements  of 

i    the  English  polyphonists  culminated,  was  that 

^  70 


After  the  Reformation 


of  the  anthem.  This  took  the  place  of  the  Latin 
motet  when  the  Latin  language  was  banished 
from  the  Church  in  England.  The  full  (choral) 
anthems  of  such  masters  as  Tallis  (died  1585), 
Byrd  (i 538-1623),  and  Gibbons  (i 583-1625),  are 
among  the  choicest  specimens  of  unaccom- 
panied contrapuntal  composition.  The  accom- 
panied (verse)  anthem  for  soloists  and  chorus 
belongs  to  the  period  of  decadence  of  the  pure 
church  style,  which  was  hastened  by  the 
French  tastes  of  Charles  IL  (1660-1685).  The 
permission  to  embody  the  anthem  in  the  lit- 
urgy, granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1559, 
is  notable  for  its  accompanying  injunction  : — 
"  having  respect  that  the  sentence  of  the  hymn 
may  be  understanded  and  perceived," — a  quali- 
fication which  anticipated  by  four  years  the 
similar  demand  made  by  the  commission  of 
Pope  Pius  IV.  for  the  reformation  of  church 
music  and  satisfied  with  such  important  results 
by  Palestrina. 

Secular  music  of  an  artistic  standard  was 
represented  in  England  principally  by  the  mad- 
rigal, which  stood  in  high  favour  with  the  no- 
bility and  gentry,  and  to  which  the  English  po- 
lyphonists  imparted  a  national  character.  At 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509-1547),  who  was 
himself  a  composer  of  high  attainments,  it  was 
considered  a  disgrace  not  to  be  able  to  carry  a 

7X 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


part  in  singing  a  madrigal.  When,  however, 
counterpoint  succumbed  to  modern  harmony 
the  madrigal  made  way  for  the  less  elaborate 
glee,  and  for  the  round  and  the  catch,  pecul- 
iarly English  types  of  music  the  correct  per- 
formance of  which  became  a  difficult  art  with 
fixed  traditions,  properly  understood  only  in 
England  to  this  day.  Singing  catches  with  ap- 
propriate gestures,  as  was  customary,  formed 
one  of  the  principal  amusements  at  the  court 
of  Charles  II.,  and  was  enthusiastically  taken 
up  by  the  common  people  particularly  of  the 
northern  and  midland  counties,  where  aptitude 
and  love  for  part-singing  were  present  to  an 
unusual  degree. 

In  the  Chapel  Royal  England  possesses  one 
of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest,  choral  institutions 
in  existence  with  the  exception  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  in  Rome.  Although  the  first  record  of 
such  an  establishment  dates  back  to  the  fif- 
teenth century  only,  it  scarcely  admits  of 
doubt  that  royal  chapels  were  organised  long 
before  that  time.  From  that  record  it  appears 
that  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Edward  IV.  (1441- 
1483)  was  complete  in  every  department  and 
was  conducted  on  an  elaborate  scale.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  Confessor  to  the  Household;  twenty- 
four  Chaplains  and  Clerks,  skilled  in  discant, 
eloquence  in  reading,  and  ability  in  organ  play- 

72 


After  the  Reformation 


ing ;  two  Epistlers,  ex-chorister  boys ;  eight 
Children  and  a  Master  of  the  Children.  The 
members  of  the  chapel  were  bound  to  accom- 
pany the  sovereign  wherever  he  might  go. 
The  children  were  boarded  and  lodged  at  the 
royal  palace.  They  had  daily  amongst  them 
"two  loaves,  one  messe  of  greate  meate,  ij 
galones  of  ale,"  and  were  attended  by  one  ser- 
vant "  to  traine  and  bear  their  harness  and 
lyvery  in  Courte."  When  on  a  journey  with 
the  king's  chapel  they  received  fourpence  a 
day  for  horse  hire.  When  their  voices  changed 
"  yf  they  will  assente  the  King  assygneth  them 
to  a  College  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge  of  his 
foundation,  there  to  be  at  fynding  and  studye 
both  suffytyently,  tylle  the  King  may  other- 
wise advance  them." 

While  in  the  Chapel  Royal  and  at  St.  Paul's 
in  London  the  children  were  evidently  well 
cared  for,  such  seems  not  to  have  been  the  case 
at  churches  of  minor  importance.  Officers  were 
constantly  roaming  the  country  with  warrants 
empowering  them  to  seize  and  take  with  them 
for  service  in  the  royal  chapel  singing  men 
and  children  "with  good  breasts"  and  expert 
in  the  science  of  music,  wherever  they  could 
be  found,  whether  in  cathedrals,  churches, 
colleges,  chapels,  houses  of  religion,  or  any 
other  place  within  the  realm.      The  right  of 

73 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


carrying  out  this  edict  seems  to  have  been  sur- 
reptitiously exercised  in  favour  of  other  choirs 
than  those  for  whose  benefit  it  had  been  framed, 
and  the  boys  so  impressed  appear  not  always 
to  have  been  well  treated,  as  the  following  com- 
plaint written  by  Thomas  Tusser  (i  523-1 580), 
the  author  of  "  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good 
Husbandry,"  when  he  was  chorister  at  Walling- 
ford,  indicates: — 

*'  Oh  shameful  time !  for  every  crime 
What  toosed  ears,  like  baited  beares. 
What  bobbed  lippes,  what  yerkes,  what  nips, 

What  hellish  toies ! 
What  robes,  how  bare,  what  colledge  fare, 
What  bread,  how  stale ;  what  penny  ale. 
Then  Wallingford,  how  wert  thou  abhor'd 

Of  silly  boies." 

The  life  of  the  choristers,  however,  was  not 
altogether  one  of  discipline  and  work.  They 
enjoyed  from  the  earliest  times  certain  privi- 
leges and  rights  from  the  exercise  of  which 
they  derived  a  little  money  and  a  great  deal  of 
amusement.  They  were  permitted,  for  in- 
stance, during  a  number  of  days  every  year, 
generally  in  December,  to  impersonate  their 
superiors  and  assume  authority  over  them. 
In  doing  this  they  displayed  such  skill  in  act- 
ing that  they  were  intrusted  with  the  per- 
formance of  miracle  plays  and,  at  the  time  of 

74 


After  the  Reformation 


Queen  Elizabeth,  even  with  the  representation 
of  masques  and  dramatic  pieces.  Under  Ed- 
ward VI.  (1547-15 53)  the  royal  chapel,  consist- 
ing of  thirty-four  singers  and  thirty-nine  in- 
strumentalists, was  maintained  at  an  annual 
expense  of  more  than  twenty  -  two  hundred 
pounds  sterling. 

The  singing  of  the  royal  choristers  must 
have  been  on  a  high  plane  of  excellence.  A 
Venetian  ambassador  at  the  court  of  King 
Henry  VIIL,  who  had  undoubtedly  often 
heard  the  services  at  St.  Mark's  in  Venice, 
which  the  great  Flemish  master  Willaert  (1480- 
1562)  had  made  famous,  wrote  "the  mass  was 
sung  by  His  Majesty's  choristers,  whose  voices 
are  more  heavenly  than  human.  They  did  no 
chant  like  men,  but  gave  praise  like  angels." 

Fortunately  the  reign  of  the  bigoted  Round- 
heads, who  in  waging  a  war  of  extermination 
on  everything  associated  with  the  conduct  of 
the  ritual  of  the  Anglican  Church  directed 
their  efforts  towards  the  complete  extinction 
of  choral  culture,  not  excepting  the  singing  of 
catches  and  glees  in  ale-houses,  was  not  of  suf- 
ficient duration  to  quite  destroy  musical  tradi- 
tions. Nevertheless,  when  under  Charles  II. 
cathedral  music  was  restored,  so  much  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  obtaining  choir-boys 
that  it  was  frequently  found  necessary  to  sup- 

75 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


ply  their  places  in  the  chorus  with  adult  fal- 
setto singers  and  even  cornets.  For  the  Chapel 
Royal,  however,  Captain  Cooke,  once  a  choris- 
ter of  the  chapel  of  Charles  I.,  succeeded  in 
gathering  together  a  set  of  boys  of  most  ex- 
J^  tfaordinary  talent.  On  one  occasion  the  King, 
[  who  took  great  pride  in  his  choir,  after  having 
appealed  in  vain  to  his  court  composers  to  fin- 
ish at  a  few  hours'  notice  a  thanksgiving  an- 
them for  the  celebration  of  a  victory  over  the 
Dutch  fleet,  communicated  his  wish  to  these 
young  choristers.  Undaunted  three  of  them 
undertook  and  accomplished  the  task  within 
the  allotted  time  by  writing  the  piece  known 
as  the  "  Club  Anthem.**  These  three  boys, 
Humphrey  (1647-1674),  Blow  (1648-1708),  and 
Turner  (1651-1739),  grew  up  to  take  their 
places  among  the  most  celebrated  composers 
/  of  that  period,  and  together  with  their  fellow 
'  chorister,  Henry  Purcell  (1658-1695),  one  of  the 
greatest  if  not  the  greatest  of  English-born 
musicians  of  all  times,  became  the  founders  of 
the  new  English  school  of  church  music. 

Naturally  in  sympathy  with  the  dramatic 
movement  following  the  Renaissance,  which 
bore  music  from  the  ecclesiastical  modes  and 
f  the  unaccompanied  polyphonic  style  towards 
modern  tonality  and  the  accompanied  mono- 
die  style,  these  choristers  were   urged  on  in 

76 


After  the  Reformation 


the  new  direction  by  Charles  II.,  who,  having 
acquired  a  decided  taste  for  the  melodious 
and  brilliant  French  operatic  music  during  his 
stay  on  the  Continent,  insisted  on  its  introduc: 
tion  into  the  Church.  Accordingly  he  com- 
manded his  composers  to  write  bright,  tune- 
ful pieces  in  which  the  solo  voices  would  be 
duly  considered  and  interludes  frequently  in- 
troduced for  the  orchestra  of  viols,  sackbuts 
(trombones),  and  cornets  with  which  he  filled 
the  organ  loft  of  the  royal  chapel.  In  comply- 
ing with  his  wishes  they  created  the  verse  an-  y  >j 
them  with  its  short  melodious  and  more  or  less 
florid  movements  for  solo  voices,  chorus,  and 
organ  or  orchestra.  Purcell's  works  in  this 
form  as  well  as  in  the  larger  choral  forms,  such 
as  those  of  the  sacred  cantata  and  the  ode,  were 
of  so  advanced  a  type  and  showed  so  keen 
an  appreciation  of  the  means  of  characteris- 
tic expression  inherent  in  music  that  Handel 
felt  safe  in  accepting  them  as  models  for  his 
early  compositions  of  the  same  kind.  Influ- 
ences similar  to  those  which  dictated  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  verse  for  the  full  anthem,  were 
responsible  for  the  supplanting  of  the  time 
honoured  unisonous  Gregorian  with  the  mod- 
ern harmonised  single  and  double  chant. 

With  the  introduction   of  Christianity  into 
Germany  provisions  were  made  for  the  instruc- 

77 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


tion  of  the  clergy  and  choir-boys  in  the  proper 
performance  of  the  Roman  ritual  by  the  foun- 
dation of  schools  in  Fulda  in  744  and  shortly  af- 
ter in  Ratisbon,  Wurzburg,  Mayence,  and  other 
cities,  similar  to  the  Roman  singing  schools  and 
presided  over  or  inspected  at  intervals  by  Ro- 
man choristers.  The  people  being  necessarily 
debarred  from  participation  in  the  regular  ser- 
vices of  the  church,  which  were  conducted  in 
Latin,  sought  and  found  opportunities  to  give 
praise  in  their  own  language  and  in  their  own 
songs  at  church  festivals  for  which  definite  lit- 
urgical forms  had  not  been  provided  and  which 
in  the  course  of  time  had  assumed  the  charac- 
ter of  popular  celebrations.  In  this  they  were 
encouraged  by  the  clergy,  who  translated  Latin 
church  hymns  into  the  vernacular  and  wrote 
new  ones  adapted  to  folk-melodies.  Some  of 
the  sequences  of  Notker  Balbulus,  already  re- 
ferred to,  originated  in  this  way.  The  folk- 
melodies  themselves  underwent  changes  in  the 
course  of  time  under  the  influence  of  the  Gre- 
gorian chants,  which  the  people,  who  heard 
them  constantly,  involuntarily  imitated.  This 
is  particularly  observable  in  many  of  the  tunes 
which  were  introduced  in  the  miracle  plays, 
the  forerunners  of  the  oratorio. 

As  early   as   the   thirteenth   century   every 
church  festival  had  its  canticum  vulgare,  its  pop- 

78 


After  the  Reformation 


ular  song,  in  which  the  congregation  joined 
either  at  a  designated  place  in  the  course  of  the 
service  or  at  the  end  of  it.  In  Bohemia,  a  coun- 
try noted  for  its  wealth  of  beautiful  and  charac- 
teristic folk-music,  the  singing  of  spiritual  songs 
was  made  the  subject  of  special  study.  With 
this  purpose  in  view  the  first  choral  society  of 
which  there  is  any  record  was  organised  at 
Prague  in  1 195.  This  was  the  *'  Society  of  Cho- 
rus Singers,"  and  its  expressed  object  was  the 
improvement  of  popular  sacred  music.  Its  mis- 
sion was  later  taken  up  by  the  "  Choruses  of 
Literati,"  singing  societies  established  by  stu- 
dents of  seminaries  and  universities  in  order  to 
promote  congregational  singing  in  the  vernac- 
ular. In  Germany  similar  movements  were  be- 
gun towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  interest  in  sa- 
cred music  was  widespread  in  Germany,  the 
practice  of  discant  and  counterpoint  yielded  no 
important  results  in  that  country  until  the  Ref- 
ormation necessitated  the  introduction  of  a  new 
type  of  church  composition  by  revolutionising 
the  liturgy.  Up  to  that  time  the  German  poly- 
phonic composers  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
the  Flemish  masters ;  and  while  some  of  them, 
such  as  Finck  (about  1500)  and  Isaak  (died 
about  1 5 17),  the  composer  of  the  noble  tune 
"  Inspruck  ich  muss  dich  lassen,"  which  Bach 

79 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


so  often  made  use  of,  applied  the  Flemish 
methods  with  conspicuous  success  to  German 
folk-melodies  and  spiritual  songs,  they  did  not 
found  a  distinctively  national  school. 

All  this  was  changed  by  the  Reformation. 
The  individual,  personal  nature  of  the  new 
doctrine  not  only  permitted  but  required  the 
employment  of  the  vernacular  and  the  partici- 
pation of  the  congregation  in  divine  service. 
In  order  to  encourage  this  Luther  (1483-1546) 
advocated  the  retention  of  the  most  familiar 
hymns  of  the  Latin  Church,  which  he  translated 
into  German,  and  the  introduction  of  popular 
folk-songs  and  spiritual  songs,  the  texts  of 
which  he  and  his  collaborators  adapted  for 
church  use.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Protes- 
tant chorale.  In  the  course  of  time  new  tunes 
were  added,  Luther  himself  being  a  contributor. 
The  melody  of  the  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Refor- 
mation, "  Ein'  feste  Burg,"  however,  generally 
ascribed  to  him,  was  composed  by  Walther 
(1496-1570).  Luther,  who  loved  music  and  had 
studied  it  in  the  schools  of  Mansfeld,  Magde- 
burg, and  Eisenach,  insisted  that  these  melodies 
should  be  harmonised  artistically — which  meant 
in  the  polyphonic  manner  then  prevalent — yet 
so  as  not  to  distort  or  make  unrecognisable  their 
contours.  Rupf,  chapel-master  to  the  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  and  Johann  Walther,  cantor  at 

80 


After  the  Reformation 


the  court  of  Frederick  the  Wise  at  Torgau,  ac- 
complished this  task.  The  first  collection  of 
chorales  collated  and  edited  by  Walther  was 
published  in  1524  at  Wittenberg  in  five  books, 
each  containing  a  single  vocal  part  only.  In 
this  collection  the  melody  with  but  a  few  ex- 
ceptions was  given  to  the  tenor,  while  in  later 
hymn-books  the  principle  of  assigning  the  lead- 
ing part  to  the  highest  voice,  so  successfully 
carried  out  in  the  arrangements  for  congrega- 
tional use  made  by  Dr.  Lucas  Oseander  and  pub- 
lished in  1586,  was  almost  universally  adopted^ 
One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the 
chorales,  particularly  of  those  resting  on  folk- 
tunes,  was  the  irregularity  of  their  metrical 
construction,  the  combination  of  duple  and 
triple  metre.  This  peculiarity  was  unfortu- 
nately sacrificed  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  ef- 
forts of  the  organists  to  extemporise  elaborate 
polyphonic  accompaniments.  The  German 
chorale  in  tones  of  uniform  value,  as  now  sung, 
is  but  a  shadow  of  its  original  self. 


Great  importance  though  Luther  attached  to 
congregational  singing,  he  did  not  fail  to  advo- 
cate the  retention  of  trained  choirs  and  thereby 
to  encourage  the  composition  of  choral  music 
in  the  more  elaborate  forms.  In  writing  such 
works  the  German  composers  remained  true  to 
the  dignified  style  becoming  the  church,  and  to 

81 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


this  it  was  due  that  polyphonic  methods  were 
not  entirely  forgotten  when  the  monodists  of 
Italy  and  France  became  the  musical  lawgivers. 

In  the  perpetuation  and  improvement  of  the 
schools  for  the  education  of  choristers,  which 
had  been  founded  under  the  Roman  Church, 
Luther  took  an  active  interest.  Having  him- 
self received  his  musical  instruction  in  mo- 
nastic and  cathedral  schools  and  realising  the 
need  of  such  institutions,  he  appealed  to  civic 
authorities,  parishes,  and  wealthy  citizens  to  aid 
in  supporting  them  when,  with  the  secularisa- 
tion of  bishoprics  and  with  the  suppression  of 
abbeys  and  the  alienation  of  their  lands,  they 
and  the  choirs  connected  with  them  were  dis- 
solved. Luther  had  been  a  **  poor  scholar  *'  too 
and  one  of  the  currendani^  who  earned  a  spare 
penny  by  singing  hymns  and  spiritual  songs 
before  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do ;  and  having 
learned  from  observation  the  religious  influ- 
ence of  this  practice,  he  urged  its  continuance. 
In  addition  he  advocated  the  formation  of  so- 
cieties for  the  propagation  of  church  music. 

While  on  the  one  hand  church  choirs  neces- 
sarily sacrificed  some  of  their  efficiency  for  a 
time  with  the  loss  of  the  compact  organisation 
due  to  their  semi-clerical  character,  they  on 
the  other  hand  became  the  means  of  diffusing 
musical  knowledge  among  the  people  as  they 

82 


After  the  Reformation 


ceased  to  be  hedged  in  by  monastic  regula- 
tions. Among  the  institutions  which  helped 
to  usher  in  the  new  era  in  choral  culture  that 
of  the  currendi  was  one  of  the  most  efficient. 
Although  justification  for  its  existence  had  long 
since  passed,  such  an  institution  was  stubbornly 
kept  alive  in  Berlin  for  the  pecuniary  return 
it  yielded  until  about  twenty  years  ago,  when 
it  was  prohibited  from  continuing  its  practices. 
The  idea  of  organising  peregrinating  choirs 
for  the  purpose  of  disseminating  religious  doc- 
trines among  the  people  and  at  the  same  time 
of  providing  means  for  the  indigent  scholars,  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Scipio  Damianus,  Bishop 
of  Asti  (died  1472),  yet  from  time  immemorial 
it  was  one  of  the  privileges  of  the  pupils  of  the 
monastic  schools  on  certain  festival  days  to 
go  about  town  with  appropriate  emblems  and 
invite  the  bestowal  of  alms  by  singing.  In 
the  course  of  the  Reformation  these  juvenile 
choirs,  the  currendi,  not  only  served  as  a  po- 
tent means  of  spreading  the  new  doctrine,  but 
became  an  important  feature  as  well  in  the  prop- 
agation of  choral  culture.  The  currendani,  as 
the  members  of  the  currendi  were  called,  were 
selected  from  the  lower  classes  of  the  parochial 
and  cathedral  schools  and  instructed  to  assist  at 
divine  service  by  singing  choral  responses  and 
chorales.     As  many  of  them  were  poor  boys, 

83 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


and  the  remuneration  for  these  duties,  if  there 
was  any,  was  trifling,  they  were  encouraged  to 
pass  from  house  to  house  and  sing  canticles  in 
two  or  three  parts,  for  which  they  received  a 
small  compensation.  In  the  course  of  time  it 
became  customary  to  engage  their  services  on 
every  possible  opportunity,  for  in  Germany  no 
ceremony  or  celebration  was  considered  com- 
plete without  its  musical  accompaniment.  At 
baptisms,  on  birthdays,  at  weddings,  and  on 
countless  similar  occasions  the  currendani  were 
in  demand,  so  that  they  were  often  about  from 
early  in  the  morning  till  late  at  night.  What- 
ever the  little  singers  received  was  handed  to 
the  teacher,  who  at  the  end  of  the  week  divided 
it  up  and,  after  having  given  to  each  one  the 
amount  necessary  for  his  sustenance,  held  what 
remained  in  trust  until  the  end  of  the  school- 
term.  Daily  instruction  in  singing  and  in  the 
music  of  the  ritual  was  given  gratuitously. 
The  celebrated  English  historian  Burney,  who 
was  much  amused  at  the  little  choristers,  de- 
scribes them  as  wearing  "  black  undertaker-like 
uniforms  and  large  grizzle  wigs,"  and  asserts 
that  in  the  larger  cities  they  received  a  thaler 
every  quarter  of  a  year  from  the  resident  am- 
bassadors for  agreeing  not  to  sing  before  their 
doors.  In  order  to  avoid  conflict  the  curren- 
dani   were   divided   into   a   number   of   choirs 

84 


After  the  Reformation 


to  each  of  which  a  certain  territory  was  as- 
signed. 

In  the  higher,  the  Latin  schools,  especially 
in  those  connected  with  cathedrals,  the  cus- 
tom of  making  provisions  for  the  lodging  and 
boarding  of  a  number  of  boys  and  youths  with- 
in the  school  enclosures,  generally  old  monas- 
teries, remained  in  force  after  the  Reformation, 
In  return  for  the  enjoyment  of  these  privileges 
the  alumni,  as  these  boys  were  called,  were 
bound  to  serve  as  members  of  the  church  choir 
or  of  the  church  orchestra,  when  instrumental 
accompaniment  was  required,  for  they  received 
not  only  vocal  but  instrumental  instruction  as 
well.  The  funds  requisite  for  the  sustenance  of 
additional  alumni  were  often  furnished  by  per- 
sons interested  in  church  music.  In  some  par- 
ishes as  many  as  fifty  alumni  were  provided 
for. 

On  these  choirs  devolved  the  duty  of  singing 
the  figurate  music,  music  written  in  florid  coun- 
terpoint, to  which  the  little  currendani  were 
not  equal,  and  to  them  belongs  the  credit  of 
having  popularised  in  Germany  the  works  of 
the  polyphonic  masters,  which  had  been  until 
then  cultivated  almost  exclusively  by  the  royal 
and  princely  chapels,  composed  largely  of 
Flemish  and  Italian  singers. 

The  alumni  were  really  competent  musicians, 
85 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


many  of  whom  looked  forward  to  a  professional 
career.  The  only  drawback  to  the  efhciency  of 
the  choruses  of  alumni  was  that  the  tenors  and 
basses  lacked  the  sonority  of  maturity,  while  the 
sopranos  and  altos  could  serve  for  a  short  time 
only,  on  account  of  approaching  change  of  voice. 
It  is  said  that  it  was  not  unusual  for  a  lad  of 
seventeen  to  sing  a  soprano  solo  of  a  Sunday 
and  a  few  weeks  later  to  be  one  of  the  basses. 

A  phenomenon  for  which  it  is  difficult  to  ac- 
count is  that  the  secret  which  made  it  possible 
for  male  adults  to  sing  high  soprano  parts,  and 
which  was  supposed  to  be  known  to  the  Span- 
iards alone,  appears  to  have  been  in  the  posses- 
sion of  some  of  these  young  men.  Spitta,  the 
biographer  of  Bach,  whose  testimony  is  unim- 
peachable, asserts  that  it  was  not  uncommon 
for  the  adult  choristers  who  sang  the  solos  in 
Bach's  works  to  command  a  range  up  to  E  and 
F  in  Alt.,  and  Burney  writing  in  1732  from  Vi- 
enna referred  in  laudatory  terms  to  the  sing- 
ing in  falsetto  of  the  ''  poor  pupils."  In  Dres- 
den the  chorus  for  the  Grand  Opera  even  was 
made  up  of  the  alumni  of  the  School  of  the 
Holy  Cross  from  17 17  till  18 17,  when  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber  organised  a  special  opera  chorus. 

As  the  alumni,  like  the  currendani,  were  per- 
mitted to  sing  in  private  houses  and  in  this  way 
derived  considerable  income,  applicants  for  ad- 

86 


After  the  Reformation 


mission  into  such  choirs  were  numerous,  and 
conductors  could,  therefore,  be  exacting  in  their 
demands.  Bach  himself  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
left  Ohrdruf  for  Luneburg  in  order  to  apply 
for  such  a  position,  which,  of  course,  he  ob-« 
tained.  That  the  alumni  were  technically  well 
trained  is  evident  from  the  requirements  which 
the  works  of  Bach  and  his  contemporaries,  com- 
posed with  such  singers  in  view,  make  on  skill 
in  intonation  and  execution.  The  ability  to 
surmount  easily  such  difficulties  as  those  of 
rapid  scales  and  trills  was  considered  absolutely 
indispensable  to  the  equipment  of  a  chorister. 

The  influence  of  the  currendani  and  alumni  on 
choral  culture  in  Germany  was  highly  benefi- 
cial. Even  after  their  official  connection  with 
church  choirs  had  ceased,  the  former  boy  chor- 
isters as  students  at  the  seminaries  and  univer- 
sities continued  to  manifest  their  interest  in 
choral  music  by  establishing  choruses  and  par- 
ticipating in  the  services  of  the  church.  To- 
gether with  the  adjuvanteSy  voluntary  assistants, 
who  reinforced  the  instrumentalists  regularly 
employed,  they  made  it  possible  to  undertake 
the  elaborate  production  of  large  accompanied 
choral  works,  especially  on  festival  days.  At 
the  University  of  Leipsic,  for  instance,  a  chorus 
musiais  was  organised  in  the  sixteenth  century 
for  the  purpose  of  adding  interest  to  the  aca- 

87 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


demic  functions  by  means  of  musical  perform- 
ances. This  chorus,  the  members  of  which 
were  former  alumni,  was  endowed  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  became  so  celebrated  in  the  course 
of  time  that  churches  were  glad  to  obtain  their 
cantors  (directors)  from  its  ranks. 

The  students  also  formed  collegia  musica,  in- 
stitutions the  origin  of  which  is  attributed  to 
Jodocus  Willichus  (born  1501),  who  is  said  to 
have  organised  the  first  society  of  this  kind  at 
the  university  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  The 
members  of  these  societies  generally  met  in 
taverns,  where  they  played  and  sang  for  their 
own  pleasure  as  well  as  for  that  of  a  few  in- 
vited friends  and  then  enjoyed  a  repast. 
The  collegium  musicum  founded  by  Telemann 
(1681-1767),  a  prominent  composer  and  influen- 
tial musician,  gave  performances  in  the  New 
Church  which  attracted  wide-spread  attention, 
especially  during  the  Leipsic  Fair,  on  account 
of  their  brilliant  operatic  style,  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  dignified  services  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Thomas  conducted  by  Bach,  who  eventu- 
ally superseded  Telemann.  To  such  societies 
institutions  like  the  Gewandhaus  Orchestra  of 
Leipsic  are  to  be  traced. 

In  the  smaller  towns,  where  the  means  for 
supporting  alumni  were  not  at  hand  the  music 
lovers,  many  of  whom  had  been  currendani  in 


After  the  Reformation 


their  youth,  constituted  themselves  into  choirs 
and  made  it  possible  to  sing  figurate  music  in 
co-operation  with  the  boy  choirs.  They  fur- 
nished instrumental  accompaniment  too  on 
church  festivals.  These  cantoreyen^  as  they  were 
called  after  their  instructors  and  directors,  the 
cantors  (originally  rectores  chori),  were  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  religious  brotherhoods  which 
were  common  in  Switzerland  and  Bohemia  in 
the  twelfth  century  and  had  Cecilia  for  their 
patron  saint. 

One  of  the  oldest  and  most  long  lived  of 
such  cantoreyen,  and  a  typical  one,  was  that  at 
Torgau,  which  supplanted  the  chapel  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  Frederick  the  Wise  (1544- 
1556),  and  was  founded  by  Walther,  a  member 
of  that  chapel  and  afterwards  Luther's  adviser. 
This  cantorey  organised  from  among  the  towns- 
people "  for  the  elevation  of  public  divine  ser- 
vice by  artistic  singing,  if  possible  with  the 
accompaniment  of  instrumental  music,"  be- 
came a  guild  which  enjoyed  the  protection  of 
the  town  council  and  the  assistance  of  the 
wealthy  citizens.  It  was  the  pride  of  the  whole 
community  and  its  services  were  in  frequent 
demand.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  turned 
into  a  society  resembling  in  many  respects  the 
singing  clubs  of  to-day.  In  1596  associate 
members,  as  they  would  now  be  called,  were 

89 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


admitted.  The  entrance  fee  for  these  was  a 
goodly  quantity  of  Torgau  beer.  Once  a  year 
a  convivium  musicum,  a  banquet  with  music,  was 
arranged,  towards  the  expense  of  which  each 
member  contributed  his  share.  In  these  cele- 
brations the  chorister  boys  were  allowed  to 
join,  **it  is  to  be  hoped  by  partaking  of  the  edi- 
bles only  "  adds  the  serious  minded  chronicler. 
For  being  late  at  rehearsals  the  active  members 
were  fined  five  pfennige,  about  a  cent  and  a 
half,  for  each  quarter  of  an  hour.  Absence 
from  a  rehearsal  was  punished  with  a  fine  of 
three  groschen,  about  six  cents.  The  cantor 
was  authorised  to  summon  the  singers  for 
practice  whenever  he  considered  it  necessary. 
In  1628,  it  was  resolved  that  "■  pleasing  music  " 
should  be  performed  at  the  annual  banquet, 
which  Otto  Taubert  (1811-1891),  the  chronicler 
referred  to,  and  himself  cantor  at  Torgau  for  a 
time,  declares  to  have  been  the  first  effort  at 
cultivating  secular  music  among  the  middle 
classes.  Simultaneously  with  this  innovation 
the  initiation  fee  was  fixed  at  fifteen  thalers 
for  passive,  and  five  thalers  for  active  members, 
from  the  payment  of  which,  however,  the  cler- 
gy, town  waits  (musicians  authorised  by  law  to 
follow  their  calling),  and  organists  were  exempt. 
The  chorus  at  that  time  numbered  twenty-five, 
and   the   limit  of   membership  for  the  whole 

90 


After  the  Reformation 


society  was  set  at  sixty.  This  association  was 
wrecked,  as  were  most  of  its  kind,  by  the 
gradual  preponderance  of  its  social  over  its 
musical  interests.  Its  musical  activity  ceased 
in  1735,  but  its  annual  banquets  took  place  until 
1 77 1.  The  cantoreyen  were  the  forerunners  of 
the  modern  amateur  choral  and  orchestral  so- 
cieties. 

With  the  decline  of  religious  enthusiasm  and 
the  decadence  of  musical  taste  due  to  the  grow- 
ing popularity  of  the  Italian  operatic  style,  the 
institutions  which  had  fostered  the  highest 
types  of  polyphonic  choral  music  passed  away. 
The  choruses  of  currendani,  of  alumni,  and  of 
students  at  seminaries  and  universities,  with 
isolated  exceptions,  died  out  for  want  of  moral 
and  material  support.  But  the  love  of  music 
which  they  had  sown  in  the  hearts  of  the  Ger- 
man people  of  every  class  and  which  in  the 
course  of  time  made  the  German  nation  the 
most  musical  of  all  nations,  never  grew  cold. 
Choral  culture  only  lay  dormant  for  a  time,  to 
be  reawakened  to  new  and  more  beautiful  life 
than  ever  with  the  organisation  of  amateur 
choral  societies. 


91 


V 

The  Mystery.     Bach 

"HPHE  Passion,"  by  which  is  meant  the  gos- 
1  pel  narrative  of  Christ's  Passion  set  to 
music  wholly  or  in  part,  is  the  most  elaborate 
representative  of  a  type  of  dramatico-ecclesias- 
tical  functions  the  origin  of  which  can  be 
traced  to  remote  antiquity.  The  original  des- 
ignation "mystery"  as  a  collective  title  for 
such  functions,  the  retention  of  which  Spitta 
has  suggested,  is  to  be  advocated  because  it 
keeps  before  the  mind  their  source,  character, 
and  purpose,  and  serves  to  facilitate  the  differ- 
entiation between  the  Passion  and  the  oratorio 
proper,  which  is  essential  to  the  correct  under- 
standing of  both. 

The  prototypes  of  the  Christian  mysteries  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Osi- 
ris, the  Indian  mysteries  of  Vishnu,  the  Greek 
mysteries  of  Dionysus,  and  the  Roman  mys- 
teries of  Bacchus,  all  of  which  were  religious 
festivals  instituted  to  commemorate  and  propi- 
tiate the  deities  at  certain  periods  of  the  year, 

92 


The  Mystery 


Just  as  with  the  Greeks  a  high  art  form,  the 
drama,  grew  out  of  the  Dionysiac  mysteries,  so 
one  of  the  highest  types  of  choral  music,  the 
oratorio,  ultimately  developed  out  of  the  pop- 
ular Christian  mysteries,  without,  however, 
displacing  the  original  ecclesiastical  functions 
themselves  in  which  they  were  rooted  and 
which  the  strong  hand  of  the  Church  restored 
again  and  again  to  their  sacred  dignity  and 
has  preserved  in  their  pristine  purity  to  the 
present  day. 

The  early  Christian  hymnographers,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  Eastern  Church,  followed 
classic  models  both  as  to  their  metrical  forms 
and  their  dramatic  construction  not  only  as  a 
matter  of  taste  but  as  a  matter  of  policy  as 
well.  The  last  Olympic  games  took  place  in 
394,  while  in  Rome  pantomimes  with  choral 
and  orchestral  music,  representing  incidents 
from  heathen  mythology  were  not  suppressed, 
notwithstanding  Imperial  decrees,  until  a  cen- 
tury later,  and  it  was  largely  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  a  substitute  for  such  performances 
that  the  hymn -writers  frequently  cast  their 
compositions  for  the  celebration  of  church  fes- 
tivals into  a  form  not  unlike  that  of  the  Greek 
drama. 

One  of  the  oldest  known  plays,  or  rather 
mysteries,  of  this  kind  is  attributed  to  Greg- 

93 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


cry  of  Nazianzen,  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
from  380  to  381.  It  treated  the  history  of  the 
Passion  in  the  shape  of  a  dialogue  interspersed 
with  hymns  corresponding  to  the  choruses  of 
the  dramas  of  ^schylus  and  Sophocles. 

Of  the  cycles  of  hymns  of  Romanus  and  his 
followers  written  in  the  course  of  the  sixth 
and  seventh  centuries,  a  number  have  been  pre- 
served. One  of  these  by  Romanus  himself, 
intended  for  Christmas  or  Epiphany,  embraces 
an  account  of  the  Nativity  and  its  wonders; 
a  dialogue  between  the  wise  men,  the  Virgin 
mother,  and  Joseph ;  a  scene  representing  the 
arrival  of  the  magi,  who  tell  of  the  religious 
conditions  of  Persia  and  the  East,  recount  the 
cause  and  adventures  of  their  journey,  and 
offer  their  gifts  ;  a  scene  picturing  the  Virgin 
interceding  for  them  with  her  Son  and  in- 
structing them  in  Jewish  history  ;  and  a  clos- 
ing prayer  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.  The 
style  of  the  hymns  of  which  this  is  an  example, 
indicates  that  they  were  intended  to  be  sung 
— possibly  with  instrumental  accompaniment. 
They  were  used  at  divine  service  and  collected 
in  hymn  books  which  remained  in  great  favour 
until  the  tenth  century,  when  they  were  no 
longer  recognised  as  church  books.  That  sim- 
ilarly constructed  poems  were  current  in  the 
Western  Church  admits  of  no  doubt. 

94 


The  Mystery 


With  the  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  antipho- 
nary,  which  in  effect  eliminated  congregational 
singing  from  the  liturgy,  the  opportunities  for 
incorporating  such  hymns  into  the  ritual  nec- 
essarily disappeared.  On  the  other  hand  the 
possibilities  inherent  in  the  liturgical  forms  for 
investing  the  gospel  narrative  with  something 
like  dramatic  interest  by  the  aid  of  illustrative 
living  pictures  and  vocal  music,  were  taken  ad- 
vantage of  by  the  clergy,  especially  on  festival 
days,  as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  and  the  peo- 
ple themselves  were  encouraged  to  supplement 
the  church  ceremonies  by  commemorating  the 
great  events  in  sacred  history  in  a  manner  not 
unlike  that  of  the  traditional  pagan  celebrations. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  church  festivals  be- 
came popular  festivals,  and  such  they  have  re* 
mained  to  the  present  time.  Even  in  Protes- 
tant Germany  the  principal  feast  days  of  the 
Church  are  popular  holidays  the  religious  im- 
port of  which  is  almost  forgotten. 

There  were  two  influences  at  work,  then,  in 
shaping  the  mysteries:  the  one  coming  from 
the  Church  and  having  for  its  basis  the  lit- 
urgy ;  the  other  coming  from  the  people  and 
having  for  its  source  the  dramatic  and  spectac- 
ular performances  of  the  pre-Christian  era.  Out 
of  the  former,  principally,  grew  the  liturgical 
mysteries  which  culminated  in  Bach's  Passions; 

95 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


out  of  the  latter,  the  popular  mysteries  and 
moralities  which  became  the  prototypes  for  the 
oratorio  and  opera. 

In  order  to  bring  home  as  forcibly  as  possible 
to  the  understanding  of  the  people  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  leading  incidents  from  sacred  his- 
tory which  the  church  festivals  commemorate, 
the  custom  became  prevalent  about  the  eighth 
century  of  giving  prominence  to  the  personal 
elements  in  the  gospel  narrative  by  distributing 
the  chanted  dialogue  among  a  number  of  differ- 
ent officiating  ecclesiastics  and  assigning  the 
utterances  of  the  various  groups,  such  as  those 
of  the  shepherds  in  the  Christmas  story,  the 
disciples  and  the  people  in  the  Passion  and 
Easter  stories,  to  all  of  them  combined.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  occasionally  scenic  decora- 
tions were  arranged  in  front  of  the  altar,  fitting 
costumes  donned  by  the  clergy,  and  histrionics 
moderately  resorted  to.  Further  than  this  no 
effort  was  made  at  dramatisation,  nor  were  the 
scenic  adjuncts  really  sanctioned  by  the  Church. 

At  such  representations  the  official  language 
of  the  Church,  Latin,  and  the  authorised  melo- 
dies of  the  Gregorian  chant  were  used  through- 
out, the  impersonators  being  the  priests,  their 
assistants,  and  the  choristers. 

This  method  was  perpetuated  by  the  papal 
singers,  by  whom  the  Passion  was  celebrated  in 

96 


The  Mystery 


the  following  manner :  The  gospel  texts  were 
chanted  to  the  prescribed  Gregorian  tones, 
without  any  accompaniment  whatever,  by  three 
ecclesiastics,  called  Deacons  of  the  Passion,  to 
one  of  whom,  a  bass,  were  assigned  the  words 
of  Christ,  to  another,  a  tenor,  those  of  the  Evan- 
gelist, and  to  the  third,  an  alto,  those  of  the 
other  personages.  In  the  utterances  of  the 
people,  the  turbce,  all  joined.  As  the  Gregorian 
melodies  suffered  changes  in  the  course  of  their 
oral  transmission,  a  number  of  different  read- 
ings of  the  chants  of  the  Passion  were  current 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel  until  1685,  when  there  was 
published  at  the  command  of  Pope  Sixtus  V. 
the  authoritative  version  which  has  since  been 
closely  followed.  About  the  same  time  an  im- 
portant innovation  was  made  in  the  service  by 
the  introduction  of  choral  settings  of  the  tur- 
bae.  These  were  provided  by  Vittoria  (1540- 
1608),  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Palestrina's 
followers,  who  wrote  music  to  the  exclamations 
of  the  crowd  in  four  parts  in  the  simplest  and 
severest  polyphonic  style,  which  was  sung  by 
the  choristers  from  the  choir  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel  for  the  first  time  in  1585  with  such  effect 
that  the  custom  has  been  adhered  to  ever  since. 
Vittoria's  turbas  were  not  intended  to  be  dra- 
matic in  style  ;  nor  would  dramatic  choruses  be 
in  place  in  association  with  Gregorian  chants 

97 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


and  an  ecclesiastical  function  —  a  fact  which 
Mendelssohn  seems  to  have  overlooked  when 
he  complained  in  a  letter  from  Rome  to  his  old 
teacher  Zelter  that  the  turbas  were  set  to  such 
tame  music.  Passions  of  the  kind  described  are 
termed  (Gregorian)  chorale  Passions. 

While  Luther  recommended  the  retention  by 
the  Protestant  Church  of  the  chorale  Passion 
translated  into  German,  he  advocated  its  fur- 
ther artistic  development.  Accordingly  his  as- 
sociate Walther  after  having  written  two  in  the 
old  style  in  1552,  composed  a  third  one  which 
belongs  to  a  more  advanced  type  in  that  the 
choruses,  the  turbse,  disclose  an  effort  at  char- 
acteristic expression. 

The  freer  application  to  the  chorale  Passion 
of  the  newly  acquired  science  of  harmony  re- 
sulted in  the  motet  Passion,  in  which  the  whole 
gospel  history,  including  even  the  narrative  of 
the  Evangelists,  was  assigned  to  several  solo 
voices  and  chorus.  Such  a  one  by  Gesius 
(1555  ?-i6i3),  in  which  the  words  of  Christ  were 
set  for  four  voices,  those  of  the  People  for  five, 
those  of  St.  Peter  and  Pilate  for  three,  and 
those  of  the  Maid  Servant  for  two,  was  pub- 
lished in  1588  at  Wittenberg.  Heinrich  Schutz 
( 1 585-1672),  who  transplanted  the  rapidly  ma- 
turing methods  of  the  Italian  dramatic  com- 
posers into  Germany,  applied  them  unhesitat- 

98 


The  Mystery 


ingly  in  his  "Seven  Last  Words  of  Christ," 
making  use  of  the  instrumental  resources  of 
the  time :  an  orchestra  consisting  of  a  number 
of  keyed  instruments  and  different  kinds  of 
lutes  and  harps.  In  his  Passions,  however, 
probably  in  deference  to  tradition,  Schiitz  re- 
turned to  the  purely  vocal  method,  employing 
the  melodic  types  of  the  plain  chant  in  the 
solo  passages,  but  treating  them  in  the  new  de- 
clamatory, recitative  like  style.  The  choruses 
he  composed  with  perfect  freedom  and  imbued 
with  a  degree  of  vigour  and  descriptiveness 
which  heralded  the  passing  of  the  chorale  and 
motet  Passion  and  the  approach  of  the  dramat- 
ic oratorio  Passion. 

So  long  as  it  was  considered  obligatory  to 
cling  to  the  scriptural  text  and,  in  a  measure,  to 
the  plain  chant,  there  was  little  opportunity 
to  take  advantage  of  the  symmetrically  con- 
structed lyrical  forms,  such  as  the  arioso  and 
the  aria  with  orchestral  accompaniment,  which 
the  Italian  dramatic  composers  had  called  into 
life.  The  steps  necessary  to  remove  this  diffi- 
culty were  boldly  taken  by  Sebastiani,  organ- 
ist and  chapel-master  at  Brandenburg,  in  1672. 
Sebastiani  not  only  interlarded  the  gospel  nar- 
rative of  his  Passion  with  verses  of  chorales, 
the  melodies  of  which  he  arranged  for  solo 
voices  in  the  form  of  the  aria,  but  also  wrote 

99 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


original  recitatives  to  take  the  place  of  the 
plain  chant  and  added  an  orchestral  accompani- 
ment for  strings  (large  and  small  viols  of  from 
five  to  seven  strings  each),  organ,  a  "  positive  '* 
(small  portable  organ),  harpsichord,  lutes,  and 
theorbe  (bass  lutes).  Therewith  the  chorale 
Passion  received  its  death-blow  and  the  ora- 
torio Passion  was  created  in  which  free  scope 
was  given  to  composers  for  the  application  of 
the  means  of  musical  expression  in  vogue  in 
the  lyric  drama. 

An  attempt  to  raise  all  the  barriers  between 
the  oratorio  and  the  Passion  was  made  by  the 
poet  Hunold,  who  in  his  "  Passion  Story  of 
the  Bleeding  and  Dying  Christ "  treated  the 
sacred  story  after  the  manner  of  an  opera  text. 
Noteworthy  features  of  this  poem  were  the 
soliloquies,  emotionally  contemplative  com- 
mentaries on  the  progress  of  the  action,  which 
were  retained  in  almost  all  subsequent  Passion 
texts  and  became  to  Bach,  who  identified  them 
with  personified  poetic  ideas,  such  as  '*  the 
Daughter  of  Zion"  and  **  the  Christian  Church," 
a  medium  for  the  transmission  of  some  of  his 
most  beautiful  and  tender  utterances.  Hu- 
nold's  libretto  set  to  music  by  Reinhard  Keiser 
(1674-1739),  one  of  the  most  prolific  opera  com- 
posers of  the  Hamburg  school,  was  performed 
during  Holy  Week  of  1704. 


Bach    "  •   "'^ 

Reaction  against  the  bold  secularisation  of 
the  Passion  history  having  set  in,  efforts  were 
made  to  remove  the  most  objectionable  features 
at  least  of  such  texts.  Of  the  many  versions 
in  which  this  was  kept  in  view,  the  one  by 
Barthold  Heinrich  Brookes,  a  member  of  the 
town  council  of  Hamburg,  published  in  1712, 
met  with  the  approval  of  the  clergy  and  at  the 
same  time  satisfied  the  requirements  of  com- 
posers. The  setting  of  it  which  Handel  made 
in  1 716  at  Hanover  was  his  last  composition 
on  a  German  text.  Bach  copied  the  first  half 
of  it  with  his  own  hand  for  the  purpose  of 
study.  The  poem  by  Brookes  differed  from 
that  by  Hunold  principally  in  the  reinstate- 
ment of  the  narrator,  the  Evangelist,  and  in  the 
reintroduction  of  the  chorale,  the  elimination 
of  both  of  which  by  Hunold  had  been  the 
principal  cause  of  offence. 

At  the  time  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685- 
1750)  the  influence  of  the  Italian  dramatists 
had  made  serious  inroads  on  church  music, 
particularly  on  the  mystery,  the  original  lit- 
urgic  character  of  which  had  almost  entirel}^ 
been  lost  sight  of.  Bach,  however,  being  thor- 
oughly imbued  with  the  true  spirit  of  these 
church  services  was  enabled  by  the  strength  of 
his  genius  to  restore  this  spirit  and  make  sub- 
servient  to  it  the  musical  forms  and  means  of  ex- 


Choirs  dhd  Choral  Music 


pression  which  had  developed  under  the  hands 
of  the  Italian  composers  and  toward  the  eleva- 
tion of  which  to  the  highest  artistic  dignity  he 
contributed  more  than  any  other  single  master. 

So  far  as  the  skeleton  of  the  form  of  Bach's 
Passions  is  concerned  it  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  that  of  the  pristine  chorale  Passion, 
for  it  consists  of  the  verbally  unaltered  Gospel 
narrative  with  its  dialogues  and  utterances  of 
the  crowd  set  as  of  old  for  single  voices  and 
for  chorus.  About  this  framework  cluster  the 
soliloquies,  the  reflective  passages,  which  mir- 
ror the  emotions  of  the  believer  as  he  contem- 
plates the  significance  of  the  narrative  ;  and  the 
chorales,  the  popular  {volksthiimliche)  element, 
which  invite  the  participation  of  the  congrega- 
tion and  threading  their  way  through  the  en- 
tire musical  fabric  emphasise  its  Protestant  and 
German  character.  These  diverse  constituents 
Bach  not  only  elaborated  with  clear  judgment 
and  marvellous  skill  and  invested  with  intense 
expressive  power,  but  combined  into  a  homo- 
geneous art- work,  which,  notwithstanding  an 
infinite  variety  in  details,  is  dominated  by  the 
ecclesiastical  spirit  of  the  mediaeval  mystery. 

Bach  is  generally  credited  with  having  com- 
posed eight  mysteries,  of  which  five  were  Pas- 
sions, one  a  Christmas,  one  an  Easter,  and  one 
an  Ascension  mystery.     Of  his  Passions  there 


BACH. 


Bach 

have  been  preserved  those  according  to  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Luke,  St.  John,  and 
fragments  of  one  according  to  St.  Mark.  Of 
these  the  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew  is 
best  known  by  far  and  is  most  frequently  per- 
formed, unfortunately  to  the  all  but  total  neg- 
lect of  the  one  according  to  St.  John. 

In  order  fully  to  grasp  the  spirit  of  Bach's 
Passions  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  they 
were  written  with  their  performance  as  church 
services  in  view.  Bach  having  in  mind  the  ec- 
clesiastical chorale  Passion,  which  was  still  sung 
at  his  time,  particularly  in  Saxony  and  Thu- 
ringia,  studiously  avoided  introducing  extrane- 
ous dramatic  elements  for  the  sake  of  effect 
merely.  The  music  of  Bach's  Passions  is  thor- 
oughly lyric.  It  is  the  expression  of  the  re- 
ligious devotion  of  his  own  individual  self  as 
representative  of  that  of  his  fellow  believers. 
Even  the  dramatic  portions  are  not  the  utter- 
ances of  actors  in  a  drama,  but  those  of  the 
Christian  congregation  which  is  carried  away 
in  its  contemplation  of  the  events  to  the  point  of 
identifying  itself  with  the  actual  participants  in 
the  scene.  Bach,  therefore,  did  not  strive  to 
individualise  the  characters  concerned  in  the 
Gospel  story.  The  singers  who  give  expression 
to  the  utterances  of  these  personages  do  not 
stand  for  the  characters  themselves  but  speak 

103 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


for  the  hearer  who  passes  with  them  through 
the  scriptural  scenes.  One  character  only  did 
Bach  isolate  from  all  the  others  and  picture  in 
a  distinctly  individual  color :  the  character  of 
the  Saviour ;  and  this  he  accomplished  by  the 
delicate  means  of  the  accompaniment,  which, 
when  set  to  the  words  of  Jesus,  is  intrusted  to  the 
strings,  in  contrast  to  the  clavichord,  which  sup- 
ports the  other  recitatives.  It  is  likewise  neces- 
sary to  the  understanding  of  Bach's  Passions  to 
bear  in  mind  that  they  are  essentially  Protes- 
tant, services  of  the  people  and  for  the  people. 
The  foundation  of  their  musical  structure  is  the 
Protestant  chorale,  the  vernacular  of  the  Prot- 
estant Church,  as  it  appears  not  only  in  the 
simple  form  suited  to  the  participation  of  the 
congregation,  but  also  in  the  marvellously  beau- 
tiful and  ingeniously  built  up  choral  move- 
ments, such  as  the  opening  and  closing  ones  of 
the  first  part  of  the  St.  Matthew  Passion,  in 
which  the  chorale  is  the  vital  element. 

As  Bach's  Passions  are  not  oratorios,  but 
spiritual  mysteries,  in  other  words,  church  ser- 
vices, they  should  be  performed  amid  the  sur- 
roundings and  under  the  conditions  with  which 
in  view  they  were  composed  in  order  to  be 
thoroughly  comprehended  and  appreciated. 
This  is  all  the  more  necessary  as  the  music  of 
Bach  gains  nothing  from  the  adventitious  means 
104 


Bach 

of  overwhelming  volume  in  chorus  or  orches-  , 
tra.  Its  tissue  is  so  delicate  that  any  attempt_^J 
to  magnify  its  constituent  threads  only  tends 
to  destroy  the  exquisite  quality  of  the  fabric. 
Bach's  music  is  as  intimate  as  chamber  music. 
Its  strength  lies  in  the  noble,  elevated,  sincere, 
and  heartfelt  character  of  its  themes,  its  beauty, 
in  the  perfect  harmony  between  form  and  con- 
tent. The  subtlety  and  exhaustiveness  with 
which  the  prevailing  thoughts  are  elucidated 
from  every  point  of  view  cannot  be  realised 
without  earnest  study.  Bach's  music  must  be 
approached  in  the  same  loving  spirit  in  which 
it  was  written,  and  with  the  same  patience 
which  was  expended  on  every  detail  of  its 
construction  ;  for  Bach,  ever  loyal  to  his  Teu- 
ton nature  and  to  his  reverence  for  art,  gave 
expression  to  his  innermost  emotions  in  the 
choicest  and  most  carefully  considered  manner, 
unmindful  whether  his  musical  language  would 
be  easily  understood  and  would  appeal  directly 
to  his  hearers  or  not,  so  long  as  it  voiced  his 
own  feelings  and  satisfied  his  own  refined  taste 
and  his  keenly  critical  musical  sensibilities. 
Bach's  music,  therefore,  is  not  for  the  masses^ 
and  it  is  not  strange  that  even  his  monumental 
St.  Matthew  Passion  should  have  been  per- 
mitted to  lie  buried  in  musical  archives  for  al- 
most a  century — until  Mendelssohn  unearthed 
105 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


it  and  conducted  a  performance  of  it  on  March 
12,  1829,  at  Berlin. 

On  the  technical  resources  as  well  as  the  ar- 
tistic perceptivity  of  the  chorus  Bach's  works 
make  great  demands.  His  was  not  the  ideally 
vocal  style  of  the  mediaeval  polyphonic  com- 
posers, who  spent  their  whole  lives  among 
choirs  only,  and  to  whom  choral  music  was  the 
only  artistic  music.  Bach's  younger  years  were 
devoted  principally  to  the  study  of  the  organ 
and  of  organ  music,  and  this  determined  his 
style,  which  tended  to  the  consistent  contra- 
puntal elaboration  of  themes  rather  than  to 
the  production  of  specifically  choral  effects, 
though  he  knew  well  how  to  achieve  these 
whenever  it  served  his  purpose.  With  the  ca- 
pabilities of  his  favourite  instrument  in  mind  he 
frequently  wrote  passages  which  are  more  in- 
strumental than  vocal  in  character.  To  give  a 
transparent  and  intelligent  performance  of  any 
of  the  more  difficult  works  of  Bach,  not  to 
speak  of  one  which  discloses  their  deeper  lying 
spiritual  meaning,  is,  therefore,  not  an  easy  task. 

The  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew,  in 
its  original  version,  was  sung  for  the  first  time 
at  the  Vesper  service  of  Good  Friday,  April 
15,  1729,  at  the  Church  of  St.  Thomas,  Leipsic. 
In  its  present  revised  form  it  was  probably  not 
heard  before  1740.  It  is  constructed  on  a  gi- 
106 


Bach 

gantic  scale,  for  two  choirs,  among  which  the 
six  soloists  are  apportioned,  two  orchestras, 
and  an  organ.  In  the  stupendous  introduc- 
tory double  chorus  a  third  choir  is  necessary 
to  carry  the  chorale  which  is  the  key  to  the 
movement. 

What  resources  Bach  had  at  hand  on  that 
memorable  Friday  to  meet  such  extraordinary 
requirements  is  an  interesting  question,  it  can 
be  partially  solved  with  the  aid  of  a  letter  writ 
ten  by  him  to  the  town  council  of  Leipsic 
shortly  after  the  first  performance  of  the  St. 
Matthew  Passion,  in  which  he  complained  of 
the  inadequacy  of  his  choral  and  instrumental 
forces  and  requested  that  they  be  increased. 
His  demands  were  indeed  moderate.  He 
asked  for  no  more  than  three,  or,  if  possible, 
four  singers  (including  the  soloist)  in  each  part 
of  each  of  the  two  church  choirs  of  which  he 
as  cantor  was  the  director,  and  of  from  eighteen 
to  twenty  instrumentalists  for  each  accompa- 
nying orchestra.  He  showed  that  of  the  fifty- 
five  alumni  in  his  charge  in  the  school  of  St. 
Thomas  only  seventeen  were  competent,  and 
that  there  were  only  eight  musicians  who  were 
bound  by  contract  to  serve  in  the  orchestra, 
these  eight  being  three  "  artist  violinists  "  (pro- 
fessionals), four  town  pipers,  and  one  apprentice 
who  played  the  bassoon, "  of  whose  quality  and 
107 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


musical  knowledge,  however,  my  modesty  for- 
bids me  to  speak, "  wrote  Bach.  In  addition  to 
these  he  could  count  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sion for  voluntary  assistance  on  the  University 
choir,  of  which  he  was  the  official  musical  di- 
rector, on  the  amateur  students'  chorus  founded 
by  Teleman,  which  Bach  likewise  conducted  at 
the  time,  and  on  a  number  of  adjuvantes,  former 
alumni,  who  continued  to  take  an  active  inter- 
est in  church  music.  Before  his  time  stipends 
had  been  set  aside  for  the  remuneration  of 
such  amateur  assistants,  but  in  Bach's  day  they 
were  no  longer  available. 

Taking  into  consideration  all  these  circum- 
stances and  the  size  of  the  choir  gallery  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Thomas,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  at 
the  first  performance  of  the  St.  Matthew  Pas- 
sion the  chorus,  including  the  soloists  who,  as 
was  customary,  sang  with  the  chorus,  stepping 
forward  when  required,  numbered  from  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-two,  divided  into  first  and  second 
chorus,  while  the  orchestra,  likewise  subdivided, 
numbered  from  forty  to  forty-five.  Bach  con- 
ducted, seated  at  the  clavichord,  with  gestures 
and  by  playing  whenever  there  was  any  wa- 
vering or  whenever  he  considered  it  necessary 
to  call  attention  to  dynamic  signs.  The  chords 
in  the  unaccompanied  (secco)  recitatives  were 
given  by  an  assistant  at  the  organ.     It  is  not 

io8 


Bach 

known  whether  the  congregation  joined  in  the 
chorales  as  it  subsequently  did  and  still  does 
at  Leipsic  with  most  impressive  results.  The 
solos  were  sung  in  all  probability  partly  by  boys 
and  partly  by  adult  students  particularly  well 
trained  in  the  use  of  the  falsetto.  These  solos  \ 
were  conceived  with  such  interpreters  in  mind,  \ 
and  therefore,  while  Bach  intended  that  they 
should  be  sung  with  deep  pious  devotion,  he 
certainly  did  not  wish  them  to  be  imbued  with 
an  emotional  intensity  foreign  alike  to  the  mu- 
sic and  to  the  immature  natures  of  those  to 
whom  he  intrusted  them. 

The  relation  between  the  chorus  and  orches- 
tra, the  latter  being  more  numerous  than  the 
former,  as  was  commonly  the  case  in  those 
days,  was  in  perfect  accord  with  Bach's  inten- 
tions. Bach  in  his  orchestration  did  not  aim 
for  sonority.  His  music  consists  of  a  multi- 
tude of  individual  parts  each  one  of  which  is 
of  equal  importance  with  every  other  one,  and 
his  instrumentation  is  therefore  calculated  to 
keep  intact  the  individuality  of  each  of  these 
parts  rather  than  to  swell  the  tone  volume.  For 
this  as  well  as  for  the  fundamental  tone  color 
he  relied  on  the  organ,  the  one  instrument 
which  belongs  to  the  church  and  is  closely 
identified  with  church  music,  and  the  volume  of 
which  could  readily  be  accommodated  to  that 
109 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  the  vocal  body.  The  harmonies  for  the  or- 
gan as  well  as  the  clavichord  accompaniment 
Bach  indicated  by  means  of  the  figured  bass,  a 
kind  of  musical  short-hand  employed  at  that 
time,  which  every  musician  was  expected  to 
read  and  elaborate  in  good  taste.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  traditions  observed  in  supplying 
such  accompaniments,  which  were  all  but  lost 
in  the  course  of  time,  Robert  Franz  (1815-1892), 
as  keen  a  critic  as  poetic  a  composer,  made  com- 
plete orchestral  scores  of  "The  Passion  accord- 
ing to  St.  Matthew  "  and  of  a  number  of  others 
of  Bach's  works,  adapted  to  the  instruments 
now  in  common  use.  This  he  did  in  a  spirit 
of  reverence  and  with  a  degree  of  judgment 
which  are  above  praise. 

Not  so  imposing  in  dimensions  yet  no  less 
perfect  than  the  Passions  as  works  of  the  poly- 
DJjonic  art  are  Bach's  motets  and  cantatas. 
/  While  the  mediaeval  masters  had  invested  their 
\  motets  with  a  degree  of  elaborateness  second 
to  that  of  the  mass  only,  the  early  German  com- 
posers converted  them  into  simple  polyphonic 
settings  of  chorales,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
Protestant  Church  and  to  the  capabilities  of  the 
choirs  of  the  currendani.  Bach,  however,  re- 
stored the  motet  to  its  old-time  dignity  of  the 
highest  type  of  unaccompanied  church  music. 
The  motets  of  Bach  kept  his  name  alive  among 


Bach 

the  more  efficient  German  choirs  until  it  was 
carried  over  the  whole  musical  world  by  the 
resuscitation  of  his  works  in  the  larger  forms. 

Unlike  the  motet,  which  is  as  old  as  counter- 
point itself,  the  cantata  was  a  creation  of  the 
monodists  and  originally  was  a  dramatic  com- 
position for  one  or  more  solo  voices  with  in- 
strumental accompaniment.  Carrisimi  (1604- 
1674)  in  transplanting  it  into  the  church  illus- 
trated the  possibility  of  combining  contra- 
puntal workmanship  with  the  new  harmonic 
and  melodic  methods  of  the  dramatic  compos- 
ers. In  Germany  the  chorale  forced  its  way 
into  the  cantata  as  into  every  type  of  Protes- 
tant church  music.  Utilising  the  various  ele- 
ments of  both  the  dramatic  and  choral  cantata. 
Bach  moulded  them  into  a  perfectly  balanced 
and  highly  organised  form.  Taking  the  melo- 
dies of  appropriate  chorales  for  his  principal  sub- 
ject matter,  he  treated  them  with  all  the  poly- 
phonic skill  at  his  command  and  interlarded 
the  choral  movements  with  recitatives,  and  airs 
set  to  metrical  texts  commentative  of  the  Gos- 
pel lessons  of  the  Sundays  and  festivals  of  the 
church  year.  Bach  composed  two  hundred  and 
ninety-five  of  such  cantatas,  which  next  to  the 
Passions  are  far  and  away  the  loftiest  exam- 
ples of  accompanied  church  music  and  contain 
choruses  unexcelled  even  by  Bach  himself. 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


In  the  works  of  Palestrina  the  mediaeval  type 
of  vocal  polyphony,  which  had  for  its  princi- 
pal object  chaste,  sensuous  beauty,  attained 
the  highest  perfection;  in  those  of  Bach  the 
modern  type  of  polyphony,  vocal  as  well 
as  instrumental,  which  has  for  its  main  pur- 
pose the  exhaustive  exposition  of  characteris- 
tically expressive  melodies,  reached  the  fullest 
development. 


112 


VI 

The  Oratorio.     Handel 

IN  imitation  of  the  semidramatic  liturgical 
ceremonials,  and  side  by  side  with  them, 
the  popular  celebrations  of  the  church  festivals 
developed.  As  has  been  shown,  these  substi- 
tutes for  the  pagan  religious  rites  were  not 
only  encouraged  by  the  Church  but  were  per- 
mitted to  take  place  within  the  very  sacred 
walls  themselves  and  were  even  participated  in 
by  the  clergy.  One  of  the  oldest  of  such  popu- 
lar mysteries,  dating  possibly  from  the  fifth 
century,  was  the  Festum  Asinorum  held  on  the 
Festival  of  the  Circumcision,  when  in  commem- 
oration of  the  Flight  of  the  Holy  Family  into 
Egypt  a  richly  caparisoned  ass  bearing  on  its 
back  a  young  maiden  with  a  child  in  her  arms 
was  led  through  the  city  and  finally  into  the 
church,  followed  by  a  crowd  of  people  who 
alternately  imitated  the  braying  of  the  animal 
and  sang  a  carol,  the  melody  of  which  in  a 
version  of  the  twelfth  century  has  been  pre- 
served. 

113 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Of  a  more  highly  organised  type  were  the 
miracle  plays  written  by  monks  for  perform- 
ance by  the  inmates  of  the  monastic  schools. 
In  these  the  scriptural  narrative,  the  musical 
setting  of  which  was  in  the  style  of  the  plain 
chant,  was  interspersed  with  explanatory  dia- 
logue, while  at  suitable  points  folk-melodies 
provided  with  fitting  words  were  introduced 
for  the  sake  of  variety  as  well  as  in  order  to 
give  the  people  opportunities  for  active  par- 
ticipation. The  Passion  story  was  utilised  for 
such  plays  in  preference  to  the  Christmas  and 
Easter  stories  principally  because  of  the  su- 
perior opportunities  it  offered  for  dramatic 
treatment  and  spectacular  effects,  although  in 
Germany  the  Christmas  and  Easter  celebrations 
too  were  popular.  In  England  Passion  plays 
were  performed  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century, 
and  there  is  on  record  the  representation  of 
such  a  play  in  1378  by  the  choristers  of  St. 
Paul  with  the  explicit  sanction  of  the  clergy. 
In  1264  a  company  of  monks  was  organised  in 
France  for  the  express  purpose  of  performing 
the  *'  Sufferings  of  Christ."  During  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  give  miracle  plays  on  a  grand  scale 
on  every  extraordinary  occasion.  In  the  Pas- 
sion play  of  Oberammergau,  which  takes  place 
decennially, — the  current  year  (1900)  completes 
114 


The  Oratorio 


such  a  cycle  —  this  custom  has  survived  by 
special  indulgence. 

The  scope  of  the  religious  plays  was  en- 
larged in  the  course  of  time  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  subject-matter  from  the  Old  Testament 
and  from  the  legends  of  the  saints  of  the  Church ; 
and,  in  the  "  moralities,"  by  the  allegorical 
treatment  of  religious  motives,  the  characters 
representing  personified  virtues  or  qualities. 
Of  the  last  mentioned  form  the  troubadours 
were  probably  the  inventors.  Among  the  most 
popular  subjects  were  such  as  "  The  Good  Sa- 
maritan," "  The  Prodigal  Son,"  "  The  Sacrifice 
of  Abraham,"  and  "  The  Spiritual  Comedy  of 
the  Soul."  In  the  same  degree  as  these  plays 
became  more  highly  organised,  the  musical  ele- 
ments were  forced  into  the  background,  the 
use  of  the  plain  chant  being  discontinued  and 
preference  given  to  the  spoken  dialogue,  while 
the  choral  movements  were  reduced  to  the 
smallest  proportions. 

As  the  miracle  plays  drifted  farther  and  far- 
ther away  from  the  liturgical  services  in  which 
they  had  originated,  everything  that  could 
pander  to  a  taste  vitiated  by  the  remnants  of 
the  ancient  popular  entertainments,  which  were 
perpetuated  in  the  farces  {farsce),  was  intro- 
duced. Devils  and  the  prince  of  devils  became 
indispensable  figures,  for  to  them  as  the  clowns 

"5 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


and  buffoons  of  the  play  the  spectators  looked 
for  amusement.  Even  the  Passion  story  was 
defiled  by  the  addition  of  vulgarly  comic  epi- 
sodes. The  costumes  were  made  so  elaborate 
and  the  scenery  so  costly  that  it  was  impossible 
for  one  and  the  same  town  to  arrange  such  rep- 
resentations for  two  successive  years.  Every 
link  that  had  bound  the  popular  mysteries  to 
the  liturgical  mysteries  was  severed.  The 
Church  was  compelled  to  condemn  a  practice 
which  it  had  sanctioned  for  years  and  which 
could  be  purified  and  chastened  only  by  being 
elevated  to  an  artistic  plane. 

About  the  year  1551  Filippo  Neri  (15 15-1595), 
a  learned  priest  canonised  in  1622,  instituted 
a  series  of  meetings  at  Rome  in  the  oratory  of 
the  monastery  San  Girolamo,  and  later  in  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella,  at  which  he 
delivered  discourses  on  Scripture  history.  In 
order  to  make  these  more  attractive  to  his  audi- 
ences, which  consisted  of  young  men  of  the 
humbler  classes,  he  prefaced  and  followed  his 
sermons  with  narratives  of  the  scenes  under 
consideration  cast  into  the  shape  of  dialogues, 
which  were  presented  possibly  in  action,  cer- 
tainly with  interspersed  spiritual  songs  (laudi 
spirituali)  of  the  type  made  popular  by  the 
choirs  of  laudisti,  organised  early  in  the  four- 
teenth century.     Neri's  assemblies  led  to  the 

116 


The  Oratorio 


formation  of  an  educational  society  of  secular 
priests,  which  Gregory  XIII.  sanctioned  un- 
der the  name  of  Congregazione  dell '  Oratorio,  To 
these  circumstances  the  adoption  of  the  term 
Oratorio  for  the  religious  drama  is  general- 
ly traced,  though  on  somewhat  insufficient 
grounds.  No  less  celebrated  a  master  thati  | 
Palestrina  composed  spiritual  songs,  in  madri-  j 
gal  style,  for  the  Congregation  of  Oratorians. 

The  development  of  the  oratorio  in  Rome 
now  went  hand  in  hand  with  that  of  the  opera 
in  Florence,  from  which  it  differed  only  in  the 
subject-matter.  The  first  effort  to  apply  to  the 
sacred  drama  the  new  accompanied  melodic 
style  born  of  the  attempt  to  revive  the  Greek 
drama,  was  made  by  Emilio  del  Cavalieri  (died 
1599),  himself  one  of  the  originators  of  declam- 
atory monodic  composition.  The  result  of  this 
effort  was  the  oratorio  "  La  Rappresentazione  di 
Anima  e  di  Corpo^'  "  Representation  of  the 
Soul  and  the  Body,"  an  allegorical  piece  writ- 
ten by  Laura  Guidiccioni  after  the  plan  of  the 
mediaeval  mysteries  or,  more  accurately,  mo- 
ralities. The  characters  in  this  sacred  drama 
were  principally  personifications  of  abstract 
ideas:  the  World,  Life,  Time,  Pleasure,  the 
Body,  the  Soul,  the  Intellect.  The  chorus 
was  seated  or  stood  on  the  stage,  and  gestic- 
ulated while  singing.  The  orchestra  embraced 
117 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


one  double  lyre  (a  bow-instrument),  one  clavi- 
cembalo, one  large  bass  lute  (an  instrument  of 
the  mandolin  class),  and  two  flutes.  It  was 
placed  behind  the  stage,  out  of  view  of  the  audi- 
ence, in  order  that  the  actors  who  carried  in- 
struments might  appear  to  accompany  them- 
selves. The  solos  were  in  the  declamatory  style 
of  that  period,  the  short  choruses,  of  the  mad- 
rigal type,  harmonised  in  a  primitive  manner. 
Detailed  instructions  for  the  actors  were  given. 
After  having  described  in  musical  monologues 
and  dialogues  the  conflict  between  worldly 
pleasures  and  eternal  bliss,  the  characters 
typical  of  the  former  were  to  symbolise  their 
evanescence  by  divesting  themselves  piece  by 
piece  of  their  gaudy  ornaments  until  they 
appeared  as  horrible  skeletons.  If  desired, 
a  ballet  with  choral  accompaniment  could  be 
executed  at  the  end  of  the  performance.  This, 
the  first  genuine  oratorio,  was  produced  for  the 
first  time  in  February,  1600,  at  the  oratorio  of 
the  church  founded  by  Neri,  five  years  after  his 
death  and  one  year  after  the  death  of  the  com- 
poser. 

"^  Little  progress  was  made  in  the  oratorio  un- 
til Giacomo  Carissimi,  of  whom  mention  has 
been  made  in  connection  with  the  cantata,  ap- 
peared. This  serious  minded  and  admirably 
equipped  composer  sharply  differentiated  be- 


The  Oratorio 


tween  the  opera  and  oratorio  by  giving  to  the 
latter  an  ecclesiastical,  not  to  say  liturgical 
character.  He  discouraged  spectacular  repre- 
sentations as  unsuited  to  the  Church  by  intro- 
ducing the  historicusy  the  narrator,  correspond- 
ing to  the  First  Deacon  of  the  Passion,  and 
invested  his  choruses  with  breadth  and  digni- 
ty by  amalgamating  the  declamatory  with  the 
polyphonic  style. 

Notwithstanding  the  example  set  by  Caris- 
simi,  Italian  composers  were  loath  to  make  a 
distinction  between  the  opera  and  the  oratorio. 
G.  A.  Bontempi  (1624-1705),  a  composer  and 
musical  thinker  of  note,  did  indeed,  in  the  ^ 
prefatory  remarks  to  one  of  his  operas,  desig- 
nate the  chorus  as  the  determining  factor  in  / 
the  oratorio  style,  but  this  principle  was  notj.- 
generally  followed  in  practice,  for  it  required 
much  less  musical  knowledge  and  labour  to 
write  recitatives  and  arias  suited  to  the  display 
of  technical  attainments  and  therefore  calcu- 
lated to  secure  the  favour  of  the  tyrannical 
vocal  virtuoso,  which  was  synonymous  with 
popular  success,  than  to  construct  contrapuntal 
choral  movements  which  could  not  be  sure  of 
appreciation.  Carissimi's  illustrious  pupil,  how-7 
ever,  Alessandro  Scarlatti  (1659-1725),  a  mar- 
vellously prolific  composer, — he  wrote  one  hun- 
dred and  six  operas  and  two  hundred  masses, 
119 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


not  to  speak  of  oratorios— followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  teacher.  Emulating  Carissimi's 
polyphonic  workmanship  and  dignity  of  style 
he  not  only  imbued  his  choral  movements  with 
high  artistic  qualities  but  infused  life  into  the 
accompaniment  of  the  recitative  and  cast  the 
aria  into  a  symmetrical  form.  The  fact  that 
Handel  drew  liberally  on  Carissimi  and  Scar- 
latti for  the  musical  subject-matter  of  his  ora- 
torios speaks  for  the  excellence  of  the  work  of 
these  masters. 

Material  as  were  the  services  rendered  by 
Italian  composers  to  the  development  of  the 
principles  of  modern  tonality  and  rhythm,  which 
involved  definiteness  of  harmonic  design,  the 
capability  of  music  for  characteristic  expres- 
sion had  as  yet  scarcely  dawned  on  their  minds. 
It  remained  for  George  Frederick  Handel  (1685- 
1759),  in  choral  music  especially,  to  apply  these 
principles  to  the  supreme  end  of  giving  utter- 
ance  to  human  emotions  with  all  the  directness 
and  force  of  which  that  branch  of  composition 
could  be  made  capable.  To  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  result  he  brought  thorough  famil- 
iarity with  the  Italian  vocal  methods,  absolute 
mastery  of  the  resources  of  counterpoint,  then 
almost  forgotten  in  Italy,  and  an  inexhaustible 
fund  of  plastic  melodic  types. 

Having  followed  Italian  models  in  his  operas 

X20 


HANDEL. 


Handel 


and  in  his  two  Italian  oratorios,  Handel  did 
not  arrive  at  the  full  consciousness  of  his  own 
powers  and  of  the  direction  in  which  he  could 
most  successfully  exert  them  until  he  had  re- 
peatedly failed  in  his  London  operatic  ventures 
and  had  learned  to  realise  the  fondness  of  the 
English  people  for  sacred  choral  works.  His 
first  English  oratorio,  "  Esther,"  he  composed  as 
chapel-master  of  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  a  noble- 
man of  fabulous  wealth  who  lived  in  regal  mag- 
nificence in  his  palace  at  Cannons,  about  nine 
miles  from  London,  where  he  maintained  a  choir 
and  orchestra.  This  oratorio  was  produced  for 
the  first  time  on  August  29,  1720,  in  the  Duke's 
beautiful  private  chapel  by  his  own  choristers 
and  band  reinforced  with  singers  and  instru- 
mentalists from  London,  the  former  from  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral.  The  Duke,  at  whose  sugges- 
tion Handel  had  undertaken  the  composition 
of  "  Esther,"  is  said  to  have  given  him  one 
thousand  pounds  for  the  work. 

With  "  Esther "  Handel  renounced  his  M-  / 
legiance  to  the  Italian  opera  oratorio  and  clear- 
ly drew  the  line  between  the  opera  and  the 
oratorio  by  investing  the  choruses  in  the  latter  1 
with  supreme  importance — the  final  chorus  in 
*'  Esther "  is  remarkable  for  its  length.  Yet 
this  was  but  a  forerunner  of  his  great  choral 
oratorios,  in  which  the  utterances  of  the  in- 
121 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


dividual  characters,  however  eloquent  they 
may  be,  must  yield  precedence  to  the  elemen- 
tal power  and  dramatic  force  with  which  the 
chorus  presents  to  the  inner  eye  pictures  of 
soul-life  and  describes  actual  occurrences. 

Outside  the  choruses  Handel  employed  the 
current  forms  of  contemporaneous  opera,  reci- 
tatives and  arias  of  different  kinds,  though  he 
endowed  them  with  a  significance  beyond  that 
which  they  had  possessed  before.  But  for  a 
choral  style  such  as  his  there  was  no  prototype. 
This  was  of  his  own  creation  and  developed 
under  his  hands  when,  taking  Purcell's  works 
for  his  starting-point,  he  composed  on  his  first 
visit  to  London  sacred  choral  music  such  as 
the  Te  Deum  for  the  celebration  of  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht  (17 13)  and  the  Jubilate,  and,  during 
his  stay  at  Cannons,  the  twelve  Chandos  an- 
thems, really  sacred  cantatas. 

Notwithstanding  his  success  in  these  forms 
Handel  allowed  twelve  years  to  pass  before 
he  again  occupied  himself  seriously  with  them, 
and  then  he  did  so  only  under  the  stress  of 
circumstances. 

Handel  was  at  heart  a  dramatist  and  remained 

,  such  a  one  all  his  life.     His  interest  was  wholly 

/  /  absorbed  by  the  opera,  until,  having  sacrificed 

;  /  a  fortune  in  his  operatic  ventures  and  being  re- 

I   duced  to  the  necessity  of  recouping  his  losses 

122 


Handel 


in  some  way,  he  was  compelled  to  turn  to  the 
composition  of  oratorios.  This  he  looked  upon 
at  first  as  a  concession  to  public  taste  and  a  de- 
parture from  dramatic  ideals.  Ere  long,  how- 
ever, he  realised  that  in  the  direction  of  the 
reformation  of  the  oratorio  lay  his  mission  and 
that  the  fulfilment  of  this  mission  did  not  im- 
ply self-suppression,  for  in  the  oratorio  he  was 
enabled  to  utilise  all  the  forms  of  the  lyric 
drama  of  his  time  and  in  addition  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  his  matchless  powers  of  choral  com- 
position for  narrating  and  depicting  dramatic 
events  and  enforcing  the  lessons  which  they 
carried  with  them. 

Handel's  interest  in  the  oratorio  was  revived 
by  a  peculiar  circumstance.  On  February  27, 
1732,  Bernhard  Gates  (1685  ?-i773),  master  of 
the  Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  who  had  as- 
sisted at  the  first  performance  of  *'  Esther  "  at 
Cannons,  gave  at  his  house  a  representation  in 
costume  and  action  of  two  acts  of  this  oratorio 
before  an  invited  audience  in  celebration  of 
Handel's  forty-seventh  birthday.  The  chorus, 
consisting  principally  of  the  choristers  and 
gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  was  placed  after  the  manner  of 
ancient  Greek  dramatic  performances  between 
the  stage  and  the  orchestra,  which  was  com- 
posed of  members  of  "Young's  Philharmonic 
123 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Society"  and  the  "Academy  for  Ancient  Mu- 
sic." The  success  of  this  production  as  well  as 
of  two  semi-public  ones  given  shortly  after  was 
so  decided  that  an  unscrupulous  speculator 
proceeded  to  arrange  a  public  performance  of 
"  Esther,"  which  he  announced  to  take  place 
on  April  20,  1732.  Goaded  on  by  this  shame- 
less act  of  piracy  Handel,  on  April  19th,  gave 
notice  of  a  performance  of  the  same  oratorio 
to  take  place  "  By  His  Majesty's  Command  " 
on  May  2d,  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Hay- 
market.  As,  however.  Dr.  Gibson,  then  Bishop 
of  London,  refused  to  permit  the  choristers  of 
the  Chapels  Royal  to  sing  in  costume,  even  if 
they  held  books  in  their  hands,  and  Handel 
was  dependent  on  them  for  giving  the  work 
throughout  in  English,  he  informed  the  public 
in  a  postscript  to  the  advertisement  that  there 
would  be  no  acting  on  the  stage,  but  that  the 
house  would  be  "  fitted  up  in  a  decent  manner 
for  the  audience."  So  universal  was  the  enthu- 
siasm which  this  entertainment  aroused  tnat 
Handel  was  enabled  to  repeat  it  five  times. 

After  having  made  a  similar  experience  with 
his  pastoral  "  Acis  and  Galatea,"  likewise  com- 
posed at  Cannons,  Handel  could  no  longer  re- 
main in  doubt  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  English 
public  toward  the  choral  oratorio,  even  when 
produced  in  appropriate  scenic  environment 
124 


Handel 


only,  without  costumes  and  action.  Neverthe- 
less seven  years  more  elapsed — years  heavy 
with  trials  and  disappointments  —  before  he 
could  persuade  himself  to  devote  his  energies 
to  the  composition  and  performance  of  ora- 
torios rather  than  to  operatic  undertakings. 

This  he  was  finally  induced  to  do  by  the  suc- 
cess attending  the  series  of  weekly  Lenten  ora- 
torio concerts  which  he  began  in  1739.  These 
entertainments,  which  were  increased  to  twice 
their  original  number  the  year  following,  came 
to  be  looked  upon  as  the  most  brilliant  events 
of  the  London  musical  season  on  account  of 
the  superiority  of  Handel's  compositions  as 
well  as  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  the  per- 
formances. 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  determine,  the  ( 
chorus  on  these  occasions  consisted  of  almost  // 
eighty  and  the  orchestra  of  about  one  hun- 1 
dred,  to  which  there  were  added,  as  required,! 
the  harp,  theorbe,  clavichord,  and  organ  — 
most  frequently  the  last  two,  which  at  times! 
were  doubled.  Handel  conducted  seated  at' 
the  clavichord  or  organ. 

Although  the  numbers  given  indicate  a  re- 
lation between  the  vocal  and  instrumental 
forces  the  reverse  of  that  now  in  vogue,  there 
could  have  been  no  lack  of  balance.  On  the 
one  hand  the  choir  consisted  of  boys  and  men 
125 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


who  were  professional  singers  and  absolutely 
letter  perfect,  on  the  other  hand  Handel's  in- 
strumentation called  for  the  full  power  of  the 
orchestra  only  in  the  climacteric  passages,  the 
different  instrumental  groups  being  subdivided 
into  principal  (concertante)  and  supplementary 
(ripien'i)  parts,  which  he  could  employ  at  will. 
The  alto  part  in  the  chorus  was  taken  by  coun- 
ter-tenors, the  compass  and  quality  of  whose 
voices  Handel  evidently  had  in  view  when 
he  wrote  such  leads  as  those  beginning  the 
well-known  choruses  in  "  The  Messiah,"  "  And 
the  Glory  of  the  Lord  "  and  "  Behold  the  Lamb 
of  God," — themes  which  lose  much  of  their 
sharpness  of  outline  when  sung  by  female 
voices.  As  even  at  the  festivities  of  the  coro- 
nation of  King  George  IL  at  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1727  the  choir  numbered  only  forty- 
seven  singers,  it  is  evident  that  Handel's  Len- 
ten performances  were  conducted  on  a  scale 
of  extraordinary  grandeur  according  to  cur- 
rent estimates. 

Once  convinced  that  success  under  existing 
circumstances  lay  in  the  direction  of  the  ora- 
torio, Handel  applied  himself  to  composing  in 
this  form  with  the  same  energy  that  he  had  be- 
fore brought  to  bear  on  writing  operas.  Desir- 
ous of  retaining  the  prestige  of  his  concerts  he 
laboured  incessantly  to  have  novelties  on  hand 

126 


Handel 


and  brought  out  every  season  at  least  one  new 
oratorio. 

Of  the  twenty-six  oratorios  and  works  per- 
formed *'  after  the  manner  of  oratorios  "  which 
Handel  composed,  seventeen  are  on  Scriptural 
subjects,  and  of  these  again  fourteen  are  purely 
dramatic  in  construction,  following  the  lines  of 
Italian  drama,  while  two:  "Israel  in  Egypt'* 
and  "  The  Messiah,"  departing  from  this  model, 
constitute  a  class  of  their  own.  The  "  Occa- 
sional Oratorio  "  occupies  an  isolated  position. 
Common  to  all  of  these  is  the  prominence  given 
to  the  chorus  ;  and  herein  lies,  as  already  stated, 
the  reformatory  character  of  Handel's  activity. 
It  was  indispensable  to  the  development  of 
choral  music  that  the  polyphonic  choral  forms, 
which  had  remained  almost  exclusively  in  the 
possession  of  the  Church,  should  be  introduced 
into  the  concert-room,  and  this  Handel  accom- 
plished with  his  oratorios.  For,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  they  are  based  on  Biblical  his- 
tory, they  were  composed  not  with  the  church 
but  with  the  concert-room  in  view,  however 
well  they  may  be  adapted  to  church  use  when 
contrasted  with  the  productions  of  more  mod- 
ern composers. 

In  preferably  selecting  his  subject-matter 
from  Holy  Writ,  Handel  was  undoubtedly 
guided  quite  as  largely  by  practical  considera- 

127 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


tions  as  by  religious  motives.  He  had  learned 
from  experience  that  the  events  in  sacred  his- 
tory, with  which  English  audiences  were  thor- 
oughly familiar,  appealed  more  readily  to  their 
understanding  and  sympathy  than  those  in 
heathen  mythology,  with  which  they  were 
much  less  conversant.  Furthermore,  the  very 
character  of  the  choral  oratorio  invited  the 
choice  of  subjects  which  concerned  the  fates  of 
peoples,  of  nations,  yes,  of  the  whole  world ; 
and  such  subjects  of  the  most  heroic  type  he 
found  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  race  and 
(for  "  The  Messiah ")  in  the  Gospel  story. 
These  he  treated  in  his  fourteen  purely  dra- 
matic oratorios  in  the  conventional  Italian 
manner,  always  excepting  the  marvellously 
expressive,  descriptive,  and  commentative  cho- 
ruses. In  "  Israel  in  Egypt "  and  "  The  Mes- 
siah," however,  he  departed  from  this  rule  and 
created  special  forms. 

These  oratorios  too,  Handel's  greatest  and 
most  popular  ones,  are  dramatic  in  conception 
notwithstanding  their  epic  form.  Although 
they  resemble  the  liturgical  type  in  that  they 
are  built  on  Scriptural  texts  only  and  in  that  in 
"  Israel  in  Egypt "  the  narrator  is  reinstated, 
the  vividness  with  which  the  different  scenes 
are  depicted  characterises  them  as  being  con- 
cert  music  pure  and  simple. 

128 


Handel 


It  is  certainly  not  unwarranted  to  assume 
that  Handel  in  these  two  instances  chose  to 
forego  the  advantages  which  he  might  have  de- 
rived from  adopting  the  scheme  of  his  strictly 
dramatic  oratorios  because  of  pious  reverence. 
Neither  the  manifestations  of  the  power  of  Je- 
hovah, which  form  the  essential  subject-matter 
of  "  Israel  in  Egypt,"  nor  the  life  and  mission 
of  Christ,  of  which  "The  Messiah"  treats, 
would  admit  of  being  cast  into  dramatic  shape 
unless  it  were  done  after  the  manner  of  the 
mysteries  and  in  the  spirit  of  an  ecclesiastical 
function.  Handel,  whose  musical  nature  was 
no  longer  in  sympathy  with  this  type,  there- 
fore adopted  forms  which  enabled  him  to  fol- 
low his  own  methods  without  doing  violence 
to  his  feelings  and  the  feelings  of  every  be- 
liever. 

"  Israel  in  Egypt "  grew  out  of  what  now 
constitutes  its  second  part,  '*  Moses's  Song," 
which  Handel  began  four  days  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  oratorio  "  Saul."  Realising  with 
the  practised  eye  of  the  dramatist  that  he  could 
throw  "  Moses's  Song  "  into  relief  by  the  nar- 
rative of  the  incidents  which  led  up  to  it  in 
Bible  history,  he  wrote  the  series  of  marvel- 
lous tone  pictures,  principally  choral,  of  Israel's 
bondage,  of  the  Egyptian  plagues,  and  of  Israel's 
deliverance,  which  for  depth  of  pathos,  power 
129 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  description  and  suggestion  have  never  been 
equalled.  This  stupendous  work  Handel  put 
on  paper  in  the  incredibly  short  time  of  twenty- 
seven  days.  The  indifference  with  which  its 
first  performance,  given  on  April  4,  1739,  was 
received  occasioned  him  deep  pain. 

Even  more  comprehensive  in  scope  than 
"  Israel  in  Egypt  "  though  totally  different  in 
character  is  "  The  Messiah,"  in  which  Handel 
celebrated  the  Life  of  the  Saviour,  and  which 
comprises  the  announcement  of  His  Coming, 
the  Passion,  the  Resurrection,  and  the  Salvation 
of  man.  These  events  are  not  recounted  by  a 
narrator  or  in  dramatic  dialogue,  but  presented 
in  an  imaginative,  contemplative  spirit.  Yet 
the  leading  scenes  pulsate  with  truly  dramatic 
life,  though  they  are  depicted  with  a  degree 
of  reserve  which  is  eloquent  of  the  composer's 
appreciation  of  the  loftiness  of  the  subject. 
There  is  nothing  of  vague  mysticism  in  the 
music  of  "  The  Messiah,"  nor  does  it  disclose 
any  attempt  at  exegetical  interpretation  of  the 
text.  It  is  eminently  human,  suffused  with  rev- 
erence yet  permeated  with  the  healthy  vigour 
of  a  strong,  impulsive  nature  which  does  not 
hesitate  to  give  bold,  even  picturesque  utter- 
ance to  its  feelings.  Any  attempt  to  surround 
"  The  Messiah  "  with  the  halo  of  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal function  must  result,  as  it  only  too  often 
130 


Handel 


does,  in  robbing  the  music  of  much  of  its  ex- 
pressiveness and  force. 

The  general  plan  of  "  The  Messiah "  orig- 
inated with  Handel.  In  compiling  the  text  he 
had  the  assistance  of  Charles  Jennens,  a  literary 
amateur  and  friend  of  his,  who  on  account  of 
the  princely  manner  in  which  he  lived  was  sur- 
named  "  Soliman  the  Magnificent."  The  com- 
position of  "  The  Messiah "  was  another  of 
Handel's  wonderful  achievements,  for  it  occu- 
pied him  only  twent3^-four  days,  from  August 
22  to  September  14,  1741. 

The  first  public  performance  of  **The  Mes- 
siah "  took  place  under  the  composer's  direction 
at  Dublin  on  April  13,  1742,  in  the  Music  Hall, 
Fishamble  Street,  for  the  benefit  of  three  char- 
ities. A  public  rehearsal,  to  which  all  purchaseirs^, 
of  tickets  for  the  performance  proper,  "  a  most 
Grand,  Polite  and  Crowded  Audience,"  were 
admitted  was  held  four  days  before.  On  ac- 
count of  the  widespread  interest  excited  by  this 
event  a  request  was  inserted  in  the  newspapers, 
that  "  ladies  would  be  pleased  to  come  without 
hoops  and  gentlemen  without  swords."  The 
seating  capacity  of  the  hall  was  thereby  in- 
creased from  six  hundred  to  seven  hundred 
persons.  The  success  of  the  work  was  extra- 
ordinary, the  consensus  of  opinion  according 
to   Faulkfier's  Journal  being  that  '*  The    Mes- 

131 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


siah  "  was  "  allowed  by  the  greatest  judges  to 
be  the  finest  composition  of  Musick  that  was 
ever  heard." 

Handel  agreed  to  give  the  charities  of  Dub- 
lin the  benefit  of  the  first  production  of  this, 
his  newest  oratorio  in  return  for  the  assistance 
rendered  him  by  "  The  Charitable  Musical  So- 
ciety "  at  a  series  of  concerts  of  his  own  music 
which  he  had  been  invited  to  conduct  by  the 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  which  had 
been  most  liberally  patronised.  In  acknowl- 
edgment he  was  enabled  to  turn  over  to  the  so- 
ciety the  sum  of  four  hundred  pounds  sterling. 

The  chorus  which  Handel  had  at  his  dispos- 
al at  this  performance  numbered  about  four- 
teen men  and  six  boys.  As  to  the  size  of  the 
orchestra  no  reliable  data  seem  to  be  obtain- 
able. Dubourg,  an  eminent  violinist  and  great 
admirer  of  Handel's,  was  the  leader,  and  the 
State  Band,  of  which  he  was  master,  in  all  prob- 
ability furnished  the  nucleus  of  the  instrumen- 
talists, who  were  augmented  by  an  amateur 
orchestra  to  which  members  of  the  highest 
nobility  belonged.  All  these  forces  had  been 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  by  Han- 
del himself,  who  was  a  severe  disciplinarian,  in 
the  course  of  the  five  months  preceding  the 
performance.  In  a  letter  to  Jennens  he  spoke 
in  enthusiastic  terms  of  both  chorus  and  or- 
132 


Handel 


chestra.  The  soloists  were  Signora  Avolio, 
Mrs.  Cibber,  who  afterward  became  famous  for 
her  singing  of  "  He  was  Despised,"  Messrs. 
Church  and  Ralph  Rosingrave — all  artists  ad- 
mirably equipped  for  their  several  tasks. 

In  London  "  The  Messiah "  was  not  heard 
until  March  23,  1743.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  at  the  words  *'  For  the  Lord  God  omnip- 
otent reigneth  "  in  the  **  Hallelujah  "  chorus 
King  George  II.  arose,  and  with  him  the  entire 
audience,  and  remained  standing  to  the  end. 

After  the  year  1750  *'The  Messiah"  was  per- 
formed at  least  once  annually  during  Handel's 
lifetime  under  his  own  direction  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Foundling  Hospital  for  the  benefit  of 
that  institution,  to  which  he  bequeathed  a  set 
of  orchestral  parts.  Handel  himself  conducted 
"  The  Messiah  "  thirty-four  times.  At  the  last 
performance  at  which  he  was  announced  to 
appear,  on  May  3,  1759,  and  which  was  given 
notwithstanding  his  death,  which  occurred  on 
April  14th, the  orchestra  consisted  of  twelve  first  1 
and  second  violins,  three  violas,  three  'cellos, 
two  double  basses,  four  oboes,  four  bassoons, 
two  horns,  two  trumpets,  kettledrums,  clavi- 
chord, and  organ,  while  the  chorus  numbered 
five  principals  (two  women  and  three  men),  six 
boys,  and  twelve  adult  choristers.  This  body 
Handel  had  considered  sufficient  for  producing 
133 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  required  effects  in  a  hall  capable  of  seating 
about  a  thousand  persons.  The  distribution 
f  of  the  instruments  of  the  orchestra  represents 
'  the  then  customary  proportions  between  the 
strings  and  the  oboes  and  bassoons,  by  which 
they  were  reinforced  in  the  full  passages. 
These  proportions  were :  one  oboe  to  about 
three  violins,  one  bassoon  to  each  'cello,  and 
another  to  each  double  bass.  The  manner  in 
which  the  reinforcements  were  to  be  employed 
was  minutely  indicated  by  Handel  in  the  score 
and  parts. 

Such  was  the  popularity  of  **  The  Messiah," 
for  many  years  the  only  oratorio  which  it  was 
customary  to  give  complete,  that  it  opened 
a  new  era  in  choral  culture  in  England  and 
called  into  life  the  Handel  cult  which  has 
not  died  out  to  the  present  day.  The  Lenten 
performances  organised  by  Handel  were  car- 
ried on  by  John  Christopher  Smith  (1712-1795), 
Handel's  former  amanuensis,  and  John  Stan- 
ley (1713-1786),  These  led  up  to  the  great 
Handel  celebration  which  took  place  in  com- 
memoration of  the  centenary  of  Handel's  birth, 
in  Westminster  Abbey  and  the  Pantheon  from 
May  26  to  June  5,  1784  (a  year  too  early  for 
the  centenary  festival),  and  which  the  historian 
Burney  has  so  attractively  described.  On  this 
occasion  the  chorus,  including  the  principals, 
134 


r 


Handel 


numbered  two  hundred  and  seventy-five,  di* 
vided  into  :  sixty  sopranos,  of  whom  forty-seven 
were  boys  ;  forty-eight  altos,  all  men  ;  eighty- 
three  tenors ;  and  eighty-four  basses.  The  or- 
chestra numbered  two  hundred  and  fifty.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  notwithstanding  such  a  re- 
lation between  the  vocalists  and  instrumental- 
ists. Abbe  Vogler  (1749-18 14),  a  remarkably 
versatile  musician  who  contrived  to  obtain 
notoriety  in  England  and  on  the  Continent  by 
his  eccentricities  as  well  as  by  his  talents, 
pronounced  the  chorus  too  powerful  for  the 
orchestra. 

The  fitness  of  Handel's  music  for  perform- 
ance on  a  grand  scale  having  been  demon- 
strated, Handel  festivals  became  of  common  oc- 
currence. In  Germany  Johann  Adam  Hiller 
(1728-1804),  a  most  active  choral  and  orches- 
tral conductor,  imitated  the  example  set  at 
London  by  giving  "  The  Messiah,"  in  an  Italian 
translation,  in  the  Cathedral  at  Berlin  in  May, 
1786,  with  a  chorus  of  one  hundred  and  eigh- 
teen and  an  orchestra  of  one  hundred  and 
eighty-six.  Hiller  did  not  hesitate  to  pander 
to  public  taste  and  to  the  vanity  of  the  prin- 
cipal soloist  by  interpolating  an  Italian  aria. 
He  also  attempted  to  modernise  Handel's 
work  by  rewriting  the  parts  for  the  wind  in- 
struments and  making  changes  in  the  letter 
135 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  the  music.  So  little  reverence  was  enter- 
tained at  the  time  for  **  The  Messiah "  in 
Germany  that  the  advisability  of  composing 
new  arias  for  the  oratorio  was  openly  dis- 
cussed. 

It  was  in  the  nature  of  such  festivals  that 
efforts  should  have  been  made  to  increase  the 
sonority  of  the  orchestral  volume  in  keeping 
with  that  of  the  constantly  growing  vocal 
body;  and  as  this  could  be  most  readily  ac- 
complished by  the  introduction  of  additional 
wind  and  particularly  brass  instruments,  Han- 
del oratorios  were  subjected  to  all  sorts  of  de- 
plorable indignities  for  the  sake  of  producing 
noise  merely, — a  practice  which  has  unfortu- 
nately survived  to  the  present  day. 
^"'^■'^Tnstriking  contrast  with  such  innovations  are 
the  additional  accompaniments  which  Mozart 
wrote  in  1789  at  the  request  of  Baron  van 
Swieten  for  several  of  Handel's  oratorios, 
among  them  "  The  Messiah,"  in  order  to  make 
their  performance  possible  without  the  help  of 
an  organ.  The  manner  in  which  he  did  this 
has  met  with  the  unqualified  approval  and  has 
challenged  the  admiration  of  the  most  critical. 
Even  the  purists  who  would  restore  the  origi- 
nal,  to  modern  taste,  unsatisfactory  instrumen- 
tation cannot  deny  that  Mozart's  version  has 
brought  *'  The  Messiah  "  nearer  to  the  under- 


136 


Handel 


standing  and  sympathies  of  the  people  without 
in  any  way  doing  violence  to  the  composer's 
intentions.  Robert  Franz,  having  discovered 
that  the  score  attributed  to  Mozart  contained 
much  that  had  come  neither  from  Mozart's  nor 
Handel's  pen,  in  1884  published  an  edition  of 
**  The  Messiah,"  critically  revised  on  the  basis 
of  the  best  manuscripts,  in  which  all  gaps  in  in- 
strumentation are  filled  out  and  a  number  of 
carefully  considered  alterations  appear. 

The  acme  of  extraordinary  performances  of 
Handel's  works  has  been  reached  at  the  Han- 
del Festivals  which  were  begun  in  1857  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  London  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  then 
conducted  by  Sir  Michael  Costa  (1810-1884), 
and  which  have  been  held  triennially  with  one 
exception  since  1862.  On  some  of  these  occa- 
sions over  three  thousand  singers  have  been 
assembled  and  an  orchestra  of  five  hundred  has 
been  gathered  together.  The  numerical  rela- 
tion between  the  vocal  and  instrumental  forces 
has  therefore  been  brought  into  accord  with 
modern  ideas.  In  the  Triennial  Festival  of 
the  current  year,  which  took  place  in  June,  four 
thousand  performers  participated.  As  such 
undertakings  seldom  yield  artistic  results  and 
are  necessarily  confined  to  the  production  of 
the  best  known  of  Handel's  oratorios,  they  add 
137 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


little  to  the  knowledge  of  his  works,  a  goodly 
number  of  which  have  undeservedly  been  per- 
mitted to  become  obsolete,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that,  especially  when  discriminately 
pruned,  they  can  be  made  effective. 


"38 


VII 

Other  Choral  Forms 

OF  the  attempts  made  in  England  to  pursue 
the  course  marked  out  for  the  oratorio  by 
Handel,  whose  works  were  there  estimated  at 
their  true  value,  none  succeeded  in  attracting 
more  than  passing  interest.  In  Germany  the 
Italian  operatic  oratorio  ruled  supreme,  Bach's 
influence  remaining  purely  local  for  many 
decades.  In  the  meanwhile  Gluck  (1714-1787) 
was  liberating  the  drama  from  the  technical 
mannerisms  of  tyrannous  singers,  Haydn  (1732- 
1809)  was  shaping  the  symphony,  and  Mozart 
(1756-1791)  was  pouring  forth  floods  of  glow- 
ing, pulsating  melody,  and  enriching  the  or- 
chestral pallet.  When,  therefore,  Haydn  in 
1795,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  began  to  com- 
pose "  The  Creation,"  he  had  at  his  service 
vocal  and  instrumental  forms  and  means  of  mu- 
sical expression  of  which  even  he  could  have 
had  but  a  faint  conception  at  the  time  of  writ- 
ing his  Italian  oratorio,  "  The  Return  of  To- 
bias," twenty-four  years  before. 
139 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Haydn  was  persuaded  to  undertake  the  com- 
position of  "  The  Creation  "  and  '*  The  Sea- 
sons "  by  Baron  von  Swieten,to  whom  the  musi- 
cal circles  of  Vienna  owed  their  acquaintance 
with  Handel's  "  Messiah,"  and  who  provided 
the  aged  composer  with  the  text-books,  which 
he  had  translated  and  adapted — that  of  "  The 
Creation  *'  from  a  poem  by  Lidley,  based  on 
Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost,"  that  of ''  The  Sea- 
sons "  from  a  poem  by  J.  Thomson.  For  the 
composition  of  "  The  Creation "  which,  it  is 
said,  gave  Haydn  much  trouble.  Von  Swieten 
and  his  coterie  of  musical  friends  guaranteed 
Haydn  five  hundred  florins,  about  two  hun- 
dred dollars.  Under  their  care  the  first  per- 
formance of  the  oratorio  took  place  at  the 
Schwarzenberg  palace,  Vienna,  before  an  in- 
vited audience  on  April  29,  1798.  In  public  it 
was  produced  for  the  first  time  on  March  19th 
of  the  following  year  at  the  National  Theatre 
under  the  auspices  of  the  same  patrons,  who 
defrayed  all  the  expenses  and  handed  over  to 
the  composer  the  entire  proceeds,  amounting 
to  four  thousand  florins. 

The  poem  of  "  The  Creation  "  is  not  a  dra- 
matic one,  as  the  personages  introduced  ap- 
pear as  narrators  only.  This  very  fact  was  to 
the  advantage  of  Haydn,  the  trend  of  whose 
genius  was  purely   lyric,   for  it  left  him   un- 

140 


Other  Choral  Forms 


trammelled  to  give  free  rein  to  his  exuberant 
fancy  and  create  the  series  of  pictures  and 
scenes  which  for  loveliness  of  sentiment,  de- 
scriptive beauty,  and  grace  have  never  been 
excelled.  To  the  orchestral  movements  and 
the  illustrative  accompaniments  Haydn  de- 
voted particular  care,  for  this  was  his  own  pe- 
culiar sphere.  A  striking  example  of  felicitous 
orchestration  is  to  be  found  in  "  Raphael's  " 
(bass)  narrative  of  the  sixth  day  :  the  creation 
of  animal  life,  which  is  so  rich  in  imitative  bits 
of  tone  painting  that  it  has  become  known 
among  singers  as  the  "  zoological  aria."  Not- 
withstanding its  picturesqueness  and  occasional 
realism  Haydn's  music  always  remains  poetic 
and  beautiful  and  is  exalted  by  an  all-pervading 
childlike,  joyful,  religious  enthusiasm.  In  con- 
struction the  choruses  of  "  The  Creation " 
show  the  influence  of  Handel,  whose  oratorios 
Haydn  had  carefully  studied  and  had  heard  in 
Vienna  and  London,  though  in  power  and  dra- 
matic spirit  they  fall  short  of  those  of  that 
master  of  choral  effects. 

Even  less  organically  connected  than  the 
scenes  of  "  The  Creation  "  are  those  of  "  The 
Seasons,"  which  constitute  a  series  of  cantatas 
rather  than  an  oratorio.  They  concern  them- 
selves with  human  happenings  and  appealed  to 
Haydn's  sympathies  for  folk-life,  with  which 
141 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


he  was  in  close  touch,  and  which  he  was  par* 
ticularly  fond  of  picturing. 

''  The  Seasons  "  too  was  produced  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Schwarzenberg  palace,  on 
April  24,  1 801.  "  Astonishment  alternated  with 
loudly  expressed  enthusiasm  among  the  hear- 
ers "  wrote  a  chronicler  of  this  notable  event. 

The  strain  imposed  on  the  venerable  Haydn's 
vitality  by  the  composition  of  "  The  Seasons," 
which  was  begun  shortly  after  the  completion 
of  "The  Creation,"  proved  too  great.  His 
strength  of  body  and  happiness  of  mind  failed 
him  little  by  little.  He  appeared  for  the  last 
time  in  public  at  a  performance  of  "  The 
Creation"  given  on  March  27,  1808,  by  the 
"  Musical  Society  of  Dilettanti  "  with  an  or- 
chestra of  sixty  and  a  chorus  of  only  thirty- 
two  under  the  direction  of  Salieri  (1750-1825), 
a  celebrated  operatic  composer  and  conductor. 
When  the  chorus  burst  forth  with  the  words 
"And  there  was  light,"  Haydn  profoundly 
agitated  exclaimed,  pointing  toward  Heaven, 
"  It  came  from  thence!" — words  which  offer 
the  best  commentary  on  the  spirit  in  which  he 
had  conceived  this  master-work.  A  little  more 
than  a  year  later  Haydn  expired. 

The  influence  of  Haydn's  **  Creation  "  on  the 
development  of  choral  culture  in  Germany 
was  as  puissant  as  had  been  that  of  Handel's 
142 


Other  Choral  Forms 


**  Messiah  "  in  England.  Choral  societies  were 
organised  in  cities,  towns,  and  villages  for  the 
special  purpose  of  producing  the  new  oratorio, 
which  on  account  of  its  easily  comprehended 
beauties  and  the  comparative  simplicity  of  its 
choruses,  was  particularly  adapted  to  the  lim- 
ited capabilities  of  inexperienced  singers.  The 
demand  created  by  these  associations  for  sim- 
ilar works  called  forth  a  large  number  of  them. 
Descriptive  and  illustrative  oratorios  appeared 
in  profusion.  The  output  of  Haydn's  imita- 
tors, however,  was  so  insignificant  in  quality 
that  its  very  existence  is  now  forgotten. 
•  Even  before  Beethoven  (i  770-1827)  had  en- 
tirely emancipated  himself  from  the  limitations 
of  formalism  and  had  created  the  marvellously 
eloquent  musical  vocabulary  with  the  aid  of 
which  he  subsequently  gave  such  direct  and 
forceful  expression  to  the  most  intense  human 
emotions  and  the  most  varied  moods,  he  wrote 
a  choral  work  which  is  as  remarkable  for  its 
musical  charm  as  for  the  boldness  with  which  it 
defies  all  religious  traditions.  This  work,  *'  The 
Mount  of  Olives,"  which  is  classed  sometimes 
with  Passions,  sometimes  with  oratorios,  and 
sometimes  with  sacred  operas,  Beethoven  com- 
posed in  1803.  Notwithstanding  its  obvious 
incongruities,  for  which  the  text-book  is  largely 
responsible,  and  the  most  glaring  of  which  are 
143 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


a  scene  and  aria  assigned  to  the  Saviour,  and  a 
duet  and  trio  in  which  the  Saviour  is  joined  by 
an  angel  and  by  an  angel  and  St.  Peter  respec- 
tively, it  was  received  with  enthusiasm  when 
first  produced  on  April  5,  1803,  in  the  Theater 
an  der  Wien,  at  Vienna,  and  after  its  publica- 
tion in  1 810  was  quite  generally  performed 
throughout  Germany.  An  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  rid  Beethoven's  music  of  its  objec- 
tionable libretto  Avas  made  in  England  in  1842 
by  Dr.  Hudson  of  Dublin,  who  substituted  for 
the  original  words  a  text  founded  on  the  story 
of  David's  sojourn  in  the  wilderness.  In  this 
form  it  is  known  under  the  title  **  Engedi." 

The  romantic  movement  in  music  which  laid 
more  stress  on  the  clear,  definite,  and  pictu- 
resque expression  in  tones  of  emotions,  fancies, 
and  mental  concepts  than  on  the  creation  of 
works  beautiful  as  to  purely  musical  content 
and  form,  was  not  without  influence  on  the 
oratorio.  Among  those  who  in  sympathy  with 
this  tendency  devoted  themselves  to  the  com- 
position of  oratorios  Frederic  Schneider  (1786- 
1853)  and  Louis  Spohr  (1784-1859)  attained 
prominence.  The  former's  oratorio  ''  The  Judg- 
ment of  the  World,"  completed  in  1819,  created 
wide-spread  but  passing  interest;  the  latter's 
'•The  Last  Judgment"  (Die  letzten  Dinge), 
produced  for  the  first  time  at  the  Rhenish  Festi- 
144 


Other  Choral  Forms 


val  of  1826,  became  particularly  popular  in  Eng- 
land, where  it  is  still  in  favour.  These,  not  to 
mention  less  distinguished  contemporaneous 
oratorio  writers,  were  completely  eclipsed  by 
Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  (1809-1847),  who 
with  "  St.  Paul  "  and  "  Elijah  "  recorded  tri- 
umphs comparable  only  to  those  achieved  by 
Handel  with  "  The  Messiah  "  and  Haydn  with 
"  The  Creation." 

The  popular  success  of  Mendelssohn's  ora- 
torios was  due  to  the  fact  that  notwithstanding 
his  sincere  effort  to  combine  the  devotional 
depth  of  Bach  with  the  brilliant  power  of  Han- 
del, the  methods  of  both  of  whom  he  had  thor- 
oughly assimilated,  he  remained  true  to  his 
own  style,  which  in  its  suave  beauty  and  calm 
fervour  was  within  the  ready  comprehension  of 
his  time  and  in  harmony  with  its  emotional  and 
imaginative  tendencies.  Less  profound  than 
Bach  and  less  virile  than  Handel,  he  entertained 
sentiments  and  formed  conceptions  of  the  char- 
acters to  be  portrayed,  which  were  in  perfect 
accord  with  the  somewhat  sentimental  religious 
life  of  his  day.  Possessed  of  all  the  resources 
of  musical  expression  and  illustration  which 
had  been  developed  since  Haydn,  he  was  en- 
abled to  give  utterance  to  these  sentiments 
and  to  realise  these  conceptions  in  a  musical 
language  which  appealed  directly  to  his  hearers, 
145 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


but  which,  as  it  was  always  choice,  was  not 
harmful  to  musical  taste. 

It  admits  of  little  doubt  that  as  a  composer 
Mendelssohn  was  somewhat  overrated  during 
his  lifetime.  This  was  largely  due  to  his  remark- 
ably sympathetic  personality,  his  superior  gifts 
of  mind  and  comprehensive  education,  and  to 
his  many-sided  public  activity  ;  for  he  was  one 
of  the  most  refined  of  the  pianists  then  living, 
an  organist  unexcelled  in  the  art  of  extempo- 
rising, and  a  conductor  of  great  technical  abil- 
ity and  of  irresistible  magnetism.  Equally  cer- 
tain is  it  that  Mendelssohn  is  now  underrated  ; 
for  after  all  has  been  said  that  can  be  justly 
brought  forward  against  his  best  works,  and 
"  Elijah  "  is  one  of  them,  the  fact  remains  that 
they  are  rich  in  melody,  are  constructed  with 
consummate  contrapuntal  skill  and  knowledge 
of  choral  effects,  orchestrated  with  rare  taste, 
and  that  in  point  of  form  they  fall  little  short  of 
perfection.  As  Mendelssohn  could  not  but  yield 
to  his  extraordinary  faculty  of  inventing  sen- 
suously charming  melodies,  his  lyric  utterances 
are  often  devoid  of  forcefulness,  the  absence  of 
which  is  more  keenly  felt  since  the  dramatic 
spirit  and  dramatic  methods  have  asserted 
themselves  in  every  class  of  musical  compo- 
sition. That  he  was  capable,  however,  of  strong 
characterisation  and  was  a  master  in  adapting 

146 


MENDELSSOHN. 


Other  Choral  Forms 


the  polyphonic  forms — the  ideal  forms  for  ex- 
tended choral  movements — to  the  expression 
of  intensely  emotional  states  and  to  the  require- 
ments of  dramatic  situations,  a  number  of  scenes 
in  "  Elijah  "  show,  for  they  are  sufficiently  dra- 
matic both  in  conception  and  execution  to  ad- 
mit of  performance  on  the  stage.  In  point  of 
fluency  and  effectiveness  Mendelssohn's  choral 
style  has  not  been  surpassed,  if  it  has  been 
equalled,  by  any  other  modern  composer. 

Although  Mendelssohn  conceived  the  idea  of 
writing  an  oratorio  as  a  favourite  project  before 
he  was  twenty  years  of  age,  he  did  not  venture 
on  such  an  undertaking  until  urged  by  the 
Cecilia  Society  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  to 
compose  an  oratorio  with  St  Paul  for  its  sub- 
ject. Unable  to  come  to  an  understanding 
with  Professor  Bernhard  Marx  (1799- 1866), 
lecturer  on  music  at  the  Berlin  University,  in 
regard  to  the  introduction  of  the  chorale,  Men- 
delssohn compiled  the  text-book  himself  from 
the  Bible  with  the  assistance  of  two  friends. 
With  the  composition  of  the  music  he  was  oc- 
cupied at  intervals  from  1834  to  1836.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  right  of  producing  it  for  the 
first  time  was  acquired  for  the  Lower  Rhenish 
Festival  of  1836,  the  Cecilia  Society  having 
been  compelled  to  renounce  its  claim  on  the 
work  in  consequence  of  the  illness  of  its  direc- 

147 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


tor.  Accordingly  the  first  performance  of  "St. 
Paul"  took  place  on  May  22d  of  that  year  at 
Dlisseldorf,  under  the  direction  of  the  compos- 
er. As  an  amusing  incident  of  this  concert  it  is 
related  that  when  one  of  the  **  False  Witnesses  " 
failed  to  take  up  his  cue,  Fanny,  Mendelssohn's 
sister,  who  sang  in  the  chorus,  averted  disas- 
trous consequences  by  humming  his  part  and 
setting  him  aright.  The  oratorio  was  received 
with  unprecedented  enthusiasm  ;  yet  Mendels- 
sohn having  detected  shortcomings  in  design 
and  details  subjected  it  to  a  thorough  revi- 
sion, cutting  out  as  many  as  ten  numbers.  "  St. 
Paul "  was  seized  upon  with  such  eagerness 
by  choral  societies  that  in  Germany  alone  one 
hundred  and  fifty  performances  of  it  were  re- 
corded within  eighteen  months  of  the  Diissel- 
dorf  production. 

From  the  importance  which  Mendelssohn  as- 
signed to  the  chorale  in  "  St.  Paul  "  it  is  evident 
that  he  planned  this  oratorio  with  Bach's  Pas- 
sions in  mind.  While  such  a  scheme  offered 
obvious  advantages  for  contriving  beautiful 
musical  effects,  it  was  inconsistent  for  an  orato- 
rio, and  encouraged  the  already  wide-spread 
inclination  to  confuse  the  form  of  the  oratorio 
with  that  of  the  Passion  or  mystery. 

The  results  of  the  ten  years  of  study,  reflec- 
tion, and  experience  following  the  production 
148 


Other  Choral  Forms 


I 


of  "  St.  Paul  "  are  embodied  in  "  Elijah,"  the 
work  which  marks  the  culmination  of  Men- 
delssohn's creative  activity.  The  choice  of  this 
subject  is  said  to  have  been  determined  by  the 
passage  "  Behold,  the  Lord  passeth  by,"  which 
appealed  forcibly  to  Mendelssohn's  imagination 
and  subsequently  inspired  him  to  a  most  pict- 
uresque choral  setting.  His  principal  aim  in 
compiling  the  text  was  to  make  it  as  coherently 
dramatic  as  possible.  The  sequel  proved  that 
he  was  wise  in  so  doing,  for,  although  *'  Elijah  " 
like  "  St.  Paul "  consists  of  a  series  of  detached 
scenes,  those  of  the  former  oratorio  gain  force 
by  revolving  about  one  central  figure,  while 
those  of  the  latter  suffer  by  being  connected 
inferentially  only.  In  the  characterisation  of 
that  central  figure  and  in  the  description  of 
the  miraculous  occurrences  with  which  it  is 
identified  in  the  narrative,  Mendelssohn  most 
eloquently  demonstrated  his  resourcefulness 
in  choral  and  orchestral  composition. 

The  first  production  of  "  Elijah  "  took  place  at 
the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1846  on  the  morn- 
ing of  August  26th,  at  the  Town  Hall.  The 
orchestra  numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  and  the  chorus  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
one,  the  sixty  altos  of  which  were  men — Men- 
delssohn called  them  his  **  bearded  altos." 
When  Mendelssohn  appeared  on  the  stage  he 
149 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


was  greeted  by  the  vast  audience,  which  had 
taken  possession  of  all  the  available  space,  with 
deafening  applause,  in  which  the  orchestra  and 
chorus  joined.  Then  amid  the  quiet  of  anxious 
expectancy  the  performance  began.  The  as- 
tonishment of  the  hearers  when  after  a  few  in- 
troductory chords  Staudigl,  the  great  German 
bass,  who  sang  the  titular  part,  announced  the 
prophecy  in  the  impressive  recitative  which 
precedes  the  overture,  can  scarcely  be  imag- 
ined. For  such  a  bold  innovation  few  were 
prepared,  and  its  effect  must,  therefore,  have 
been  overpowering. 

According  to  Mendelssohn's  own  testimony 
none  other  of  his  works  was  hailed  with  such 
enthusiasm  by  musicians  and  the  public  as 
"  Elijah."  Nevertheless  he  thoroughly  revised 
this  oratorio,  too,  abbreviating,  rewriting,  and 
rescoring.  The  trio  for  women's  voices,  "  Lift 
thine  eyes,"  which  has  become  so  universally 
popular,  was  one  of  the  results  of  this  revision. 
The  original  setting  of  the  words  was  for  two 
voices  only. 

Numerous  efforts  have  been  made  and  are 
constantly  making,  on  the  one  hand,  to  apply 
to  the  principles  observed  by  Mendelssohn  in 
the  oratorio  the  methods  which  have  revolu- 
tionised the  modern  lyric  drama,  on  the  other, 
to  evolve  new  constructive  principles  on  the 
150 


Other  Choral  Forms 


basis  of  these  methods.  None  of  these  efforts 
has  so  far  been  conspicuously  successful,  and 
it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  fusion  of 
such  apparently  incompatible  elements  is  pos- 
sible in  the  choral  oratorio. 

In  England,  where  the  exceptional  facilities 
offered  by  the  regularly  recurring  festivals  for 
the  production  of  large  choral  works  act  as  a 
constant  stimulus  to  composers,  the  contribu- 
tions to  oratorio  literature  have  been  most 
copious.  Yet  in  that  country  Mendelssohn*s 
influence  has  remained  particularly  powerful 
and  is  but  thinly  veiled  by  the  profuse  em- 
ployment of  the  modern  resources  of  musical 
composition. 

In  "  The  Redemption,"  produced  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1882, 
Charles  Francois  Gounod  (18 18-1893)  attempt- 
ed to  create  a  new  type  of  religious  music 
which  he  described  as  "  plane  music  and  music 
painted  in  fresco."  The  morbidly  mystic  char- 
acter of  this  work,  the  plan  of  which  is  framed 
after  that  of  Bach's  Passions,  is  only  empha- 
sised by  the  composer's  analytical  exposition 
of  the  symbolical  nature  of  the  tone  structure. 

Directly  antipodal  to  this  type  in  purpose 
and  style  are  the  oratorios  or  sacred  operas  of 
Anton  Rubinstein  (1829-1894),  "  Paradise  Lost," 
"  The  Tower  of  Babel,"  "  Moses,"  and  ''  Christ," 

151 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


to  the  full  effect  of  which  imaginary  if  not  real 
scenic  environment  is  necessary.  The  two 
last  mentioned  are  in  fact  Biblical  operas  in- 
tended for  representation  on  a  specially  con- 
structed stage.  Such  a  production  of "  Christ," 
prepared  on  a  most  elaborate  scale  according 
to  the  instructions  and  under  the  supervision 
of  Rubinstein,  took  place  at  Bremen  in  1895, 
several  months  after  his  death,  without,  how- 
ever, inviting  imitation. 

Remarkable  for  eclecticism  and  for  the  utter 
unconstraint  with  which  the  composer  has  util- 
ised different  styles  and  forms  of  vocal  and  in- 
strumental music,  sacred  and  secular,  are  the 
oratorios  "  The  Legend  of  St.  Elizabeth  "  and 
"Christ,"  by  Franz  Liszt  (1811-1886).  The 
*'  Legend  of  St.  Elizabeth  "  was  composed  to 
celebrate  the  dedication  of.  the  restored  Wart- 
burg,  the  scene  of  the  singing  contest  of  the 
minnesingers  in  Wagner's  "  Tannhauser,"  and 
Luther's  asylum  from  1521  to  1522.  It  was 
suggested  by  the  frescoes  then  newly  painted 
on  the  walls  of  the  Wartburg  by  Moritz  von 
Schwind,  which  represent  scenes  from  the  life 
of  St.  Elizabeth.  In  attempting  to  reproduce 
these  scenes  Liszt  made  extensive  use  of  typ- 
ical phrases,  taken  in  part  from  a  hymn  sung  in 
the  sixteenth  century  on  the  festival  of  St.  Eliz- 
abeth, which  he  elaborated  with  all  possible 
152 


Other  Choral  Forms 


skill  and  presented  in  a  kaleidoscopic  profusion 
of  orchestral  tone  colours.  In  "  Christ,"  like- 
wise a  series  of  detached  scenes,  plain  chant 
melodies,  Latin  Church  hymns,  and  mediaeval 
spiritual  songs  in  varied  settings  touch  elbows 
with  high-tinted  orchestral  tone  paintings  of  the 
most  realistic  kind. 

Among  more  recent  contributions  to  the  lit- 
erature of  the  oratorio  may  be  mentioned  "  St. 
Francis"  by  Edgar  Tinel  (1854-),  in  which  the 
diversity  of  styles  is  even  more  crassly  accen- 
tuated than  in  Liszt's  "  St.  Elizabeth  "  ;  and 
the  unduly  heralded  Passion-trilogy  and  ora- 
torios by  Don  Lorenzo  Perosi  (1872-),  in  which 
an  attempt  is  made  at  the  combination  of  medi- 
aeval and  modern  methods. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  works  in  which  the 
efforts  to  discover  new  paths  in  the  composition 
of  the  choral  oratorio  in  its  most  comprehen- 
sive sense  are  most  plainly  in  evidence.  Such 
efforts  have  not  as  yet  yielded  any  far-reaching 
results,  for  they  have  not  added  anything  of 
grandeur  and  impressiveness  to  the  polyphon- 
ic style  so  well  suited  to  the  choral  oratorio,  or 
supplanted  it  with  one  more  forceful  or  better 
adapted  to  the  character  of  that  form.  Until 
they  shall  have  accomplished  one  or  the  other 
of  these  ends  they  must  be  characterised  as 
tentative  only. 

153 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


As  music  emancipated  itself  from  the  ritualis- 
tic constraint  of  the  Church,  composers  were 
not  slow  to  realise  the  opportunities  offered  by 
the  missal  text  for  the  construction  of  elaborate 
accompanied  choral  works. 

At  the  very  dividing  line  between  music  of 
and  for  the  Church  and  music  independent 
of  such  environment  stands  Bach's  stupendous 
mass  in  B  minor,  in  which  the  composer  gave 
utterance  to  his  conception  of  the  religious  sig- 
nificance of  the  words  without  considerations  of 
any  kind  save  those  imposed  by  his  own  devo- 
tional feeling  and  his  musical  sensibiUties.  The 
result  was  one  of  the  greatest  choral  works  of 
all  times,  and  one  which,  notwithstanding  its 
marvellously  intricate  construction,  appeals 
directly  to  the  hearer  on  account  of  the  lofty 
beauty  and  the  plastic  contours  of  its  themes 
and  of  the  illustrative  character  of  some  of  its 
movements.  Bach  wrote  the  first  two  parts  of 
the  mass  in  1733  for  the  royal  chapel  at  Dres- 
den and  dedicated  them  to  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony with  the  request  for  an  honorary  title,  which 
he  coveted  to  offset  the  slights  offered  him  by 
the  authorities  of  Leipsic,  to  whom  he  was  sub- 
ordinate as  cantor.  The  remaining  movements 
he  did  not  complete  until  five  years  later. 

Haydn  and  Mozart  in  their  masses  (except- 
ing the  latter's  Requiem)  made  little  effort  to 

154 


Other  Choral  Forms 


improve  on  the  operatic  style  cultivated  in  the 
churches  of  Austria  at  the  time. 

Almost  entirely  dissociated  from  any  eccle- 
siastical purport  is  Beethoven's  great  mass  in 
D,  the  only  mass  which  can  in  any  way  be  com- 
pared with  Bach's.  When  Beethoven  in  1818 
began  the  composition  of  this,  his  second  mass, 
he  had  in  mind  the  ceremony  which  was  to  sig- 
nalise the  installation  of  his  distinguished  pa- 
tron, the  Archduke  of  Austria,  as  Archbishop 
of  Olmiitz ;  but  before  he  had  got  well  un- 
der way  with  it  his  inspiration  was  not  to  be 
checked.  The  movements  outgrew  all  practi- 
cable proportions,  and  the  score,  instead  of  be- 
ing completed  within  the  two  years  originally 
allotted,  was  not  finished  until  four  years  had 
passed.  Beethoven  devoted  himself  to  this  task 
with  all  the  impetuosity  of  his  volcanic  nature. 
According  to  Schindler,  his  friend  and  biog- 
rapher, he  at  times  fell  into  a  state  of  uncon- 
trollable excitement  while  at  work,  pacing  the 
floor,  stamping,  shouting,  and  singing  like  one 
possessed. 

Beethoven  looked  at  the  text  of  the  mass  not 
in  the  light  of  its  liturgical  significance  but  in 
that  of  its  poetical  suggestiveness.  His  setting 
of  it  is  therefore  intensely  emotional  and  imag- 
inative, and  in  places  even  picturesquely  dra- 
matic, as  witness  the  much  discussed  trumpet 
155 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


fanfares  accompanied  by  drums  in  the  "Agnus 
Dei/'  which  serve  to  throw  into  relief  the  prayer 
for  peace  by  suggesting  the  tumult  of  battle. 

This  monumental  work  literally  went  a-beg- 
ging. A  circular  soliciting  subscribers  for  the 
score  addressed  to  all  the  European  courts 
brought  only  seven  favourable  replies,  among 
which  was  one  offering  a  royal  order  in  place 
of  the  subscription  price  of  fifty  ducats  (about 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars) — a  propo- 
sition which  Beethoven,  who  was  in  need  of 
money,  indignantly  rejected.  He  was  not  even 
permitted  to  hear  a  complete  performance  of 
the  mass.  It  was  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1824  that 
such  a  one  was  made  possible  through  the 
efforts  of  Prince  Galitzin.  In  Vienna  only  sin- 
gle movements,  with  the  text  translated  into 
German,  were  given  during  Beethoven's  life- 
time under  the  name  of  "  hymns,"  owing  to  the 
interference  of  the  censor. 

Of  greater  attractiveness  than  the  solemn 
mass  to  composers  who  were  under  the  spell 
of  imaginative  and  descriptive  music,  was  the 
mass  for  the  dead,  the  Requiem,  particularly 
on  account  of  the  opportunities  for  the  intro- 
duction of  unusual  orchestral  effects  offered  by 
the  sequence  "  Dies  Irae."  In  this  field  Fran- 
gois  Joseph  Gossec  (i 733-1 829)  proved  a  pio- 
neer.  His  mass  for  the  dead  performed  at  St. 
156 


Other  Choral  Forms 


Roch  in  1760  created  a  sensation,  principally 
on  account  of  the  "  Tuba  mirum,"  written  for 
two  orchestras,  one  of  wind  instruments  con- 
cealed outside  the  church,  and  one  of  strings 
placed  within  it,  which  accompanied  the  former 
pianissimo  and  tremolo  in  the  highest  registers. 
This  innovation,  however,  appears  innocuous 
when  compared  with  Berlioz's  (i 803-1 869)  the- 
atrical attempt  to  picture  the  terrors  of  the  judg- 
ment day  by  adding  to  the  full  orchestra  six- 
teen drums  with  ten  players  and  four  brass 
bands  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the  church. 
By  the  side  of  such  an  array  of  instruments  the 
requirements  of  Verdi's  (181 3-)  gorgeously  col- 
oured Requiem  are  modest  indeed.  Notwith- 
standing the  absence  of  any  adventitious  means 
Mozart's  Requiem  excels  such  works  by  far  in 
tenderness,  pathos,  and  real  force. 

One  of  the  most  noble,  dignified,  and  heart- 
felt choral  compositions  of  recent  times  is  "  A 
German  Requiem  "  by  Johannes  Brahms  (1833- 
1897),  a  series  of  deeply  contemplative  move- 
ments on  Scriptural  selections  treating  of  death, 
eternity,  and  the  happiness  of  the  life  to  come, 
in  which  all  the  resources  of  modern  harmony, 
counterpoint,  and  orchestration  are  employed 
with  consummate  skill  and  refined  taste. 

Among  the  excerpts  from  the  Roman  ritual 
which  have  invited  musical  treatment  in  the 

157 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


smaller  forms  are  the  sequence,  "  Stabat  Mater," 
the  Ambrosian  hymn  of  praise,  "  Te  Deum," 
and  the  song  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  "  Magnificat." 
Prominent  among  the  settings  of  these,  which 
are  really  sacred  cantatas,  are:  the  profound 
one  by  Bach  of  the  Magnificat ;  the  virile  and 
brilliant  Utrecht  and  Dettingen  Te  Deum  by 
Handel,  the  fantasic  Te  Deum  by  Berlioz, 
composed  as  a  part  of  a  projected  ceremony 
commemorative  of  Napoleon  I. ;  and  the  several 
settings  of  the  Stabat  Mater  by  Emanuel  As- 
torga(i68i-i736);  by  Giovanni  Pergolesi(i7io- 
1736);  by  Rossini  (i 792-1 868) — a  glaring  illus- 
tration of  the  misapplication  of  extraordinary 
musical  gifts — and  the  individually  character- 
istic Stabat  Mater  by  Antonin  Dvolrak  (1841-). 
Although  the  oratorio  is  not  necessarily  lim- 
ited to  the  treatment  of  sacred  subjects,  as  the 
secular  oratorios  of  Handel  and  Haydn  demon- 
strate, tradition  has  assigned  to  it  such  a  cir- 
cumscribed sphere  and  a  correspondingly  re- 
served and  elevated  style.  In  order  to  escape 
such  restrictions  modern  composers  have  either 
refrained  from  classifying  their  choral  works  at 
all  or  have  adopted  for  them  new,  more  or  less 
accurate,  designations,  as,  for  instance,  dramat- 
ic legend,  dramatic  cantata,  dramatic  or  lyric 
scenes,  choral  ballad,  and  poem,  according  to 
the  larger  or  smaller  dimensions  of  the  compo- 

158 


Other  Choral  Forms 


sition  and  its  predominatingly  dramatic,  narra- 
tive, descriptive  or  contemplative  character. 

As  notable  examples  of  such  works  may  be 
instanced  Mendelssohn's  charmingly  illustra- 
tive "  Walpurgis  Night";  Schumann's  (1810- 
1856)  melodious  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri,"  and 
meditative  **  Scenes  from  Faust "  (particularly 
the  mystic  third  part) ;  Berlioz's  demoniac 
"  Faust  "  ;  the  picturesque  **  Song  of  Desti- 
ny "  and  the  forceful  "  Song  of  Triumph  "  by 
Brahms ;  and  DvoHk's  realistic  "  The  Spec- 
tre's Bride."  In  England  the  output  of  compo- 
sitions of  this  class,  stimulated  by  the  needs  of 
the  provincial  festivals,  has  been  very  large. 
Among  those  which  of  recent  times  have  at- 
tracted unusual  attention  on  account  of  their 
signalising  departures  from  the  well -beaten 
path,  may  be  mentioned  S.  Coleridge  Taylor's 
(1875-)  spontaneously  melodic,  though  some- 
what reiterative  scenes  from  Longfellow's 
"The  Song  of  Hiawatha"  and  Edward  William 
Elgar's  (1857-)  contemplative  and  intricately 
constructed  settings  of  portions  of  Cardinal 
Newman's  "The  Dream  of  Gerontius"  (Bir- 
mingham Festival  of  1900). 

With  so  great  a  variety  of  forms  to  choose 
from,  composers  are  perfectly  free  to  resort  to 
any  methods  which  may  best  suit  their  pur- 
poses;   and   as   conciseness  and  directness  of 

159 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


expression  are  at  present  held  to  be  of  more  im- 
portance than  beauty  of  musical  content  and 
workmanship,  the  methods  they  preferably  em- 
ploy are  not  such  as  are  peculiar  to  the  highly 
organised  contrapuntal  types,  the  types  which 
have  been  hitherto  considered  as  most  inti- 
mately in  accord  with  the  genius  of  choral  mu- 
sic. As  a  consequence  the  choral  style  is  los- 
ing much  of  its  individuality  and  is  yielding 
more  and  more  to  the  influence  of  modern  in- 
strumental music — a  result  which  is  to  be  de- 
plored as  long  as  the  harm  it  brings  to  refined 
chorus  singing  is  not  offset  by  advantages  of 
unquestionably  artistic  significance. 


i6o 


VIII 

Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 
and  England 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  interest  in 
chorus  singing  which  such  institutions  as 
the  choruses  of  alumni  and  students  created 
in  Germany,  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  circumstances  arose 
favourable  to  the  organisation  of  choral  societies 
independent  of  the  Church  and  the  school  on 
the  one  hand  and  of  the  opera  on  the  other. 
Up  to  the  middle  of  that  century  musical  ac- 
tivity, productive  and  reproductive,  revolved 
about  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  centres. 
Music  was  composed  either  for  lending  impres- 
siveness  to  the  devotional  exercises  of  the  peo- 
ple or  for  adding  lustre  to  the  entertainments 
of  royalty  and  the  aristocracy.  It  was  per- 
formed either  by  specially  trained  church  choirs 
or  by  royal  and  private  chapels.  As  an  art 
sufficient  unto  itself,  independent  of  such  pur- 
poses, music  was  scarcely  recognised.  Public 
concerts  were  of  rare  occurrence,  and  it  is  sig- 
i6i 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


nificant  that  the  few  which  took  place  should 
have  consisted  in  oratorio  performances,  with 
and  without  scenery  and  action,  and  in  "  ora- 
torios," as  miscellaneous  concerts  too  were  uni- 
versally called,  given  merely  to  provide  a  sub- 
stitute for  operatic  representations,  which  were 
prohibited  during  Lent  as  well  as  on  all  great 
church  festivals.  To  this  class  belonged  the 
spiritual  concerts  founded  by  Anne  Danican- 
Philidor  (1681-1728)  in  1725  at  Paris,  the  Lent- 
en oratorio  concerts  permanently  organised  by 
Handel  in  1739  ^^  London,  and  those  estab- 
lished at  Vienna  in  1772  by  the  Association  of 
Musical  Artists. 

The  dearth  of  public  musical  entertainments 
acted  as  an  incentive  for  amateurs  to  meet 
together  for  the  practice  of  concerted  music. 
Such  gatherings,  as  has  been  shown,  were  heart- 
ily encouraged  by  the  conductors  of  church 
choirs,  and  in  some  cases  led  up  to  the  establish- 
ment of  permanent  concert  institutions.  The 
society  of  students,  for  instance,  which  assem- 
bled every  week  at  a  tavern  in  Leipsic  to  sing 
and  play,  and  the  direction  of  which  Bach 
assumed  in  1736,  gave  the  impulse  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  association  out  of  which  the  "  Ge- 
wandhaus"  concerts  ultimately  grew. 

Such  associations  —  dilettanti  associations 
they  were  called,  and  their  entertainments,  di- 
162 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 

lettanti  concerts,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
professional  concerts — became  more  and  more 
numerous  as  singers  and  instrumentalists  in- 
creased in  number  and  efficiency  and  as  under 
the  influence  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven 
music  became  independent  of  the  Church  and 
the  stage.  For  a  time  social  elements  entered 
very  largely  into  their  meetings.  A  supper  and 
dance  almost  invariably  followed  the  musical 
programme,  which  was  only  too  often  arranged 
with  a  view  towards  providing  opportunity  for 
the  display  of  the  attainments  of  individuals. 
For  these  and  similar  reasons  many  of  the  soci- 
eties were  short-lived.  With  those  that  sur- 
vived, however,  the  musical  features  became 
of  paramount  importance  and  attained  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  artistic  dignity.  In  some  in- 
stances most  rigid  rules  looking  towards  such 
results  were  framed.  The  statutes  of  a  society 
of  dilettanti  established  at  Heilbronn  in  1785, 
for  example,  prohibited  eating,  drinking,  and 
smoking  at  its  entertainments,  and  provided 
for  the  exclusion  of  incorrigible  chatterers  and 
for  the  prevention  of  interruption  or  disturb- 
ance of  the  performances. 

Similar   institutions   were  organised  by  the 
nobility  and  aristocracy  when  towards  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century  many  of  the  royal 
and  princely  chapels  were  dissolved.    The  titled 
163 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


classes  of  Austria  and  Bohemia  especially,  ren- 
dered invaluable  services  to  the  cause  of  mu- 
sic by  promoting  worthy  performances  of  the 
choral  master-works.  In  order  to  make  these 
possible  they  not  only  contributed  the  neces- 
sary pecuniary  means  but  gave  active  assistance 
as  well  in  the  ranks  of  the  orchestra  and  chorus. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  productions  of 
Handel's  oratorios  begun  by  Baron  von  Swiet- 
en,  for  which  Mozart  wrote  his  additional  ac- 
companiments, took  place  at  Vienna  from  1788 
to  1790,  and  those  of  Haydn's  ''Creation"  in 
1799,  and  of  "  The  Seasons"  in  1801. 

The  members  of  the  nobility  lent  the  pres- 
tige of  their  patronage  to  such  enterprises  even 
when  undertaken  by  the  upper  middle  classes, 
and  occasionally  went  so  far  as  to  participate 
in  them — a  proof  of  devotion  to  the  musical  art 
greater  than  which  they  could  not  give,  and 
an  indication  of  the  growth  of  appreciation  of 
its  dignity  and  of  the  respect  due  to  its  ex- 
ponents. 

To  the  dilettanti  concerts,  which  were  not 
supposed  to  be  subject  to  public  criticism,  at 
least  in  the  early  stages  of  the  movement,  sub- 
scribers only  were  admitted,  who  paid  merely 
a  nominal  sum  for  this  privilege.  As  very  few 
concerts  were  given  outside  of  these — in  Vi- 
enna, for  instance,  only  four  during  the  whole 
164 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 

season — there  was  no  lack  of  patrons.  Indeed, 
it  was  a  cause  of  constant  complaint  that  even 
for  visitors  from  other  cities  it  was  impossible 
to  obtain  admission  to  such  entertainments. 

The  dilettanti  concerts  were  incapable  of  a 
high  degree  of  development  because  of  the  ab- 
sence of  lofty  aims  and  of  an  artistic  standard. 
Symphonies  were  played  without  any  rehears- 
als, and  oratorios  with  the  most  insufficient 
preparation.  The  fact  that  in  the  small  town 
of  Stettin  it  was  customary  to  rehearse  a  pro- 
gramme three  or  four  times  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  laudatory  comment  in  a  public  journal 
of  Berlin,  coupled  with  the  humiliating  con- 
fession that  in  the  Prussian  capital  not  even  a 
single  full  rehearsal  could  be  counted  upon. 
Nevertheless  these  associations  served  a  good 
purpose.  To  quote  the  keen  critic  Eduard 
Hanslick — "  They  did  not,  as  they  perhaps 
hoped,  make  the  whole  population  musical,  but 
certainly  themselves." 

The  dilettanti  concerts  were  doomed  as  soon 
as  professional  orchestral  associations  estab- 
lished themselves,  which  elevated  instrumental 
performances  to  a  point  beyond  the  reach  of 
amateurs.  These  educated  the  public  to  de- 
mand in  choral  music,  too,  which  was  depend- 
ent on  the  co-operation  of  non-professionals,  a 
degree  of  efficiency  to  be  attained  by  system- 
165 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


atic  practice  only,*  and  up  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  necessity  of  systematic 
practice  had  not  been  thought  of  among  ama- 
teurs. 

So  far  as  the  question  of  the  permanent  or- 
ganisation of  bodies  *\Df  amateur  singers  de- 
sirous of  devdtipg  tji^mselves  seriously  to  the 
study  of  choral  mu^c'Hs  •coTicerned,  regardless 
of  the  irpAediate  artistic  results  ♦achieved, 
America  seems  to  have  the  right  of  claiming 
priority,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  fol- 
lowing. The  first  society,  however,  destined  to 
accomplish  the  results  which  revolutionised 
choral  culture  by  showing  that  artistic  achieve- 
ments were  possible  with  larger  numbers  of 
amateur  singers,  was  the  Singakademie  of  Ber- 
lin, founded  in  1790;  and  the  man  who  devised 
the  methods  by  means  of  which  this  was  ef- 
fected was  Karl  Christian  Fasch  (i 736-1 800). 

This  admirably  equipped  and  earnest-mind- 
ed musician,  after  having  acted  in  companion- 
ship with  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  (1714-1788)  as 
accompanist  to  the  royal  flutist  Frederick  the 
Great  of  Prussia,  for  almost  twenty  years,  re- 
moved to  Berlin  for  the  purpose  of  giving  vo- 
cal lessons  and  devoting  himself  to  the  com- 
position of  unaccompanied  choral  music  in  the 
mediaeval  style.  In  1783  Reichardt  (1752-1814), 
the  royal  chapel-master,  submitted  to  Fasch  for 
166 


FASCH. 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 

examination  the  score  of  a  mass  in  sixteen  parts 
by  Orazio  Benevoli  (1602-1672),  a  celebrated 
Italian  contrapuntist.  Fasch,  seized  with  the 
desire  to  outdo  the  Italian  master,  set  about 
writing  a  similar  mass  under  the  additional 
self-imposed  restriction  of  grouping  the  voices 
into  four  independent  choruses,  and  applied 
himself  to  the  task  with  such  persistence  as  to 
bring  on  a  hemorrhage  of  the  lungs.  Longing 
to  hear  his  work  he  attempted  its  performance 
at  first  with  twenty  of  the  royal  choristers  in 
Potsdam  and  then  with  members  of  the  church 
choir.  The  results  were  so  distressing  that 
Fasch  was  compelled  to  lay  aside  his  mass  un- 
heard for  a  time  at  least. 

In  the  meanwhile  several  young  women  had 
joined  the  circle  of  his  pupils,  among  them  the 
daughter  and  stepdaughter  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cillor Milow,  who,  appreciative  of  the  pleasure 
and  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  practice  of 
concerted  music,  persuaded  her  fellow-students 
and  a  few  friends  to  form  a  little  choir,  which 
Fasch  was  requested  to  instruct.  Fasch  be- 
came deeply  interested  in  this  activity,  largely 
because  it  promised  to  afford  him  an  opportu- 
nity to  hear  his  own  works.  In  1790  the  meet- 
ings assumed  the  character  of  regular  rehearS" 
als  and  were  held  in  the  summer-house  of  the 
Privy  Councillor.  They  were  attended  by 
167 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


from  twelve  to  sixteen  persons,  members  of  the 
leading  families  of  Berlin.  Discontinued  dur- 
ing the  winter,  they  were  resumed  the  follow- 
ing spring,  and  on  May  27,  1791,  when  the  first 
record  of  attendance  was  kept,  twenty-seven 
singers  answered  to  their  names.  This  is  the 
date  which  is  celebrated  as  that  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the  "  Singakademie,"  the  name  subse- 
quently adopted  for  the  society. 

Neither  Fasch  nor  any  one  of  the  little  band 
which  was  gathered  about  him  in  1790  had  in 
view  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  associa- 
tion, least  of  all  did  he  dream  that  he  was  taking 
the  first  step  in  a  movement  which  would  create 
a  revolution  in  choral  culture.  All  were  animat- 
ed by  the  one  object  of  self-improvement,  the  one 
incentive  of  love  for  music,  the  one  ambition  of 
doing  justice  to  an  undertaken  task.  Unlike 
the  members  of  the  dilettanti  societies,  they 
studied  choral  works  not  for  the  sake  of  de- 
riving and  affording  amusement,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  broadening  their  knowledge  and  refin- 
ing their  taste.  Actuated  by  such  motives  and 
guided  by  a  conductor  of  high  ideals,  of  skill, 
and  practical  sense,  they  could  not  but  accom- 
plish results  which  in  the  course  of  time  at- 
tracted wide-spread  attention — though  this  was 
not  of  their  seeking — and  enlisted  the  active  in- 
terest even  of  professional  musicians.  To  the 
168 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 

perpetuation  of  such  a  spirit  and  of  such  con- 
ditions it  is  due  that  the  Singakademie  has  sur- 
vived to  the  present  day  and  has  remained  a 
strong  factor  in  the  promotion  of  choral  culture. 

In  1793,  the  membership  of  the  society  hav- 
ing increased  to  forty-three  and  outgrown  the 
capacity  of  the  rooms  which  could  be  placed  at 
its  disposal  in  private  houses,  permission  to 
meet  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Science  and 
Art  was  obtained.  Fasch  now  suggested  a  plan 
of  organisation,  which  was  adopted.  He  ap- 
pointed a  board  of  three  men  and  three  women 
on  whom  devolved  the  administrative  duties  of 
the  society.  Over  its  musical  conduct  he  re- 
tained absolute  control.  To  defray  the  neces- 
sary current  expenses  each  member  contrib- 
uted twelve  groschen,  about  twenty-five  cents, 
a  month.  Professional  musicians  were  exempt 
from  the  payment  of  dues,  on  the  ground  that 
they  lent  their  services  to  the  loss  of  valuable 
time.  Fasch  not  only  officiated  as  conductor 
without  any  remuneration,  but  composed  con- 
stantly for  the  choir,  and  even  copied  the  neces- 
sary number  of  parts  of  the  works  to  be  stud- 
ied. The  great  mass  of  manuscripts  in  his 
handwriting  which  are  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  society  bears  testimony  to  his  self-sacri- 
ficing industry. 

Scarcely  less  zealous  than  their  director  were 
169 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  members  of  the  society.  In  these  days 
when  chorus  singers  labour  under  the  impres- 
sion that  in  attending  rehearsals  they  are  be- 
stowing rather  than  receiving  benefits,  it  seems 
strange  to  read  that  on  a  stormy  and  cold  night 
when  the  meeting-room  on  account  of  inade- 
quate facilities  for  heating  was  so  chilly  as  to 
endanger  health,  the  women  of  the  Singakad- 
emie,  unwilling  to  cut  short  the  rehearsal, 
knelt  down  so  as  to  be  able  to  cover  their  feet 
with  their  cloaks,  and  in  this  attitude  held  out 
to  the  end  of  the  study  hour. 

Although  the  original  object  of  the  society 
was  to  cultivate  chorus  singing  for  the  benefit 
of  its  own  active  members,  it  soon  became  im- 
possible to  resist  the  demands  for  occasional 
public  appearances.  Accordingly,  on  April  8, 
1794,  a  so-called  "auditorium,"  a  public  re- 
hearsal, was  arranged,  to  which  only  a  limited 
number  of  hearers  were  invited,  among  them 
being  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  court.  Once  a  beginning  was 
made,  it  became  customary  to  give  several 
entertainments  of  this  kind  every  season.  Not 
only  these  but  the  regular  rehearsals,  too,  were 
so  unique  at  the  time  and  excited  so  much  in- 
terest that  the  permission  to  attend  them  was 
considered  an  extraordinary  privilege.  Even 
Beethoven,  while  in  Berlin  on  a  visit  in  1796, 
170 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany- 
did  not  disdain  to  be  present  at  a  rehearsal. 
So  highly  was  he  pleased  with  the  singing  of 
the  choir  that,  to  show  his  appreciation,  he  sat 
down  at  the  piano  and  extemporised  on  themes 
from  the  pieces  he  had  heard — they  happened 
to  be  of  Fasch's  composition. 

The  first  concert  of  the  society  to  which  the 
general  public  was  admitted  on  payment  of  an 
entrance  fee  took  place  on  October  8,  1800,  in 
the  Garrison  Church,  under  the  direction  of 
Zelter  (1758-1832),  the  successor  of  Fasch,  who 
had  died  on  August  3d  previous.  The  chorus 
taking  part  numbered  one  hundred  and  fifteen, 
and  the  orchestra,  consisting  of  members  of  the 
royal  chapel,  thirty-three.  The  work  performed 
was  Mozart's  Requiem,  chosen  in  memory  of 
Fasch. 

Notwithstanding  the  success  of  this  and  oth- 
er subsequent  public  performances,  the  society 
continued  to  adhere  to  its  original  purpose  of 
self-education.  This  was  again  emphatically 
set  forth  in  the  article  of  the  revised  constitu- 
tion of  18 1 7,  which  stated  the  object  of  the  so- 
ciety to  be  the  practice  of  music  for  the  sake  of 
study,  and  not  with  frequent  public  perform- 
ances in  view.  To  the  absence  of  the  spirit 
which  dictated  such  a  policy,  and  which  ought 
to  be  the  prevailing  one  in  every  chorus,  is  to 
be  attributed  the  instability  of  singing  societies, 
171 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


as  they  go.  It  was  this  same  spirit  that  made 
it  possible  for  Fasch  to  institute,  and  for  his 
successor  to  continue,  the  thorough  methods 
of  training  which  earned  for  the  Singakademie 
well-deserved  fame.  One  of  the  most  efficient 
of  these  was  the  organisation  of  a  preparatory 
chorus  in  which  less  advanced  singers  could 
obtain  the  knowledge  and  experience  requisite 
to  their  promotion  to  the  main  body. 

The  rate  at  which  the  Singakademie  grew 
can  be  judged  from  the  following  figures.  In 
1794  the  chorus  numbered  sixty-six  ;  in  1795, 
eighty-four.  In  1802  the  membership  reached 
two  hundred  ;  in  1813,  three  hundred,  in  1827, 
four  hundred,  and  in  1833,  five  hundred.  Since 
1880  the  membership  has  hovered  about  six 
hundred. 

Of  the  many  proud  achievements  to  which 
the  Singakademie  can  point,  the  one  which 
was  perhaps  of  the  greatest  historical  signifi- 
cance was  the  rescue  from  almost  total  oblivion 
of  Bach's  "  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew  " 
by  its  performance  in  1829  at  the  urgent  solicita- 
tion and  under  the  direction  of  Mendelssohn, 
then  a  lad  of  twenty. 

Notwithstanding  the  brilliant  example  set  by 
the  Singakademie  of  Berlin,  amateurs  were 
slow  to  give  up  the  superficial  enjoyment  af- 
forded by  the  concerts  of  dilettanti  for  the 
172 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  Germany 

more  serious  work  required  in  well-organised 
societies.  Nine  years  elapsed  before  another 
institution  similar  to  the  parent  one  was  estab- 
lished, and  up  to  1818,  twenty-seven  years  after 
the  foundation  of  the  Singakademie,  only  ten 
amateur  singing  societies  were  regularly  active 
in  Germany.  After  that  time,  however,  they 
multiplied  with  great  rapidity.  Now  there  is 
scarcely  a  village  or  town  without  its  chorus. 
Many  of  these  rarely  appear  in  public.  They 
are  conducted  for  the  benefit  and  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  active  members  and  a  small  circle  of 
friends  only. 

The  study  at  home  of  the  works  in  rehearsal 
being  rather  the  rule  than  the  exception,  the 
modern  classics  have  become  household  pos- 
sessions in  Germany.  Nor  are  the  unaccom- 
panied master  works  of  the  mediaeval  compos- 
ers, Italian  and  German,  neglected.  Not  a  few 
institutions  make  their  practice  a  specialty. 
These  have  admirable  models  in  such  profes- 
sional bodies  as  the  time-honoured  choir  of  the 
church  of  St.  Thomas  at  Leipsic,  of  which 
Bach  was  cantor  from  1723  to  1750;  and  the 
cathedral  choir  of  Berlin,  which  Avas  founded 
in  1839  ^"d  permanently  organised  as  a  rival 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel  by  command  of  Freder- 
ick IV.,  King  of  Prussia  (1840-1861).  Com- 
posed of  about  sixty  members  each,  consisting 
173 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  boys  (for  the  soprano  and  alto)  carefully  se- 
lected and  perfectly  trained,  and  of  the  most 
competent  men  obtainable,  and  instructed  by 
musicians  thoroughly  versed  in  the  traditions 
of  mediaeval  music,  these  choirs  accomplish 
results  little  short  of  perfect. 

Although  numerically  imposing,  German 
male  choruses  have  not  contributed  much  tow- 
ards choral  culture  in  its  highest  aspect.  Their 
tendency  is  rather  national,  patriotic,  and  so- 
cial than  artistic,  their  sphere  of  musical  activ- 
ity circumscribed  by  their  nature.  Traceable 
to  the  seventeenth  century,  these  semi-social, 
semi-musical  clubs  did  not  become  popular 
until  Zelter,in  1808,  organised  the  first  "  Lieder- 
tafel  "  with  twenty-four  men  from  the  Berlin 
Singakademie.  Stimulated  by  the  wave  of 
patriotism  which  found  such  vigorous  expres- 
sion in  Theodore  Korner's  (1791-1813)  poems 
and  Carl  Maria  von  Weber's  (1786-1826)  setting 
of  them,  the  number  of  these  clubs  increased 
with  amazing  rapidity.  Subsequently  com- 
bined into  one  grand  "  Bund,"  they  at  intervals 
unite  to  give  a  gigantic  festival,  ''  Sangerfest," 
"  Bundesfest."  In  a  celebration  of  this  char- 
acter held  at  Dresden  in  1865,  no  fewer  than 
twenty  thousand  singers  participated. 

While  some  of  the  German  male  choruses 
have  brought  part  singing  to  a  degree  of  per- 
174 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

fection  not  often  attained  by  mixed  choirs,  they 
cannot  be  considered  a  factor  of  importance  to 
the  development  of  choral  culture  on  account 
of  the  necessarily  limited  artistic  scope  of  the 
music  at  their  disposal. 

In  England,  the  cradle  and  nursery  of  the 
choral  oratorio,  amateur  mixed  choruses  were 
slower  to  be  established  permanently  than  in 
Germany.  This  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  church  music  remained  in  the  exclu- 
sive charge  of  professional  choirs  of  boys  and 
men  longer  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter 
country.  In  Germany  the  music  of  the  Protes- 
tant ritual,  being  less  rigidly  fixed  than  in  Eng- 
land, admitted  of  a  degree  of  simplification 
which  brought  it  within  the  capability  of  the 
congregation  entirely  unaided,  or  assisted  by 
such  choirs  only  as  could  be  supplied  with  the 
help  of  the  currendani  and  amateurs.  As  has 
been  shown,  this  led  to  the  popularisation  of 
choral  practice  and  to  the  more  or  less  compact 
organisation  of  choirs  from  which  women  were 
not  necessarily  excluded.  In  England,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ritual  of  the  Established  Church 
required  the  co-operation  of  trained  choirs  at 
the  ceremonial,  which  did  not  admit  of  the  par- 
ticipation of  women.  The  professional  charac- 
ter of  these  choirs  was  furthermore  upheld  by 
175 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  extended  activity  which  they  found  in  the 
performance  of  sacred  music  in  churches,  the- 
atres, and  even  public  gardens,  particularly 
during  Lent ;  for  public  concerts  open  to  every- 
one on  the  payment  of  an  admission  fee  were 
instituted  in  England  as  early  as  1670,  long  be- 
fore they  were  established  in  Germany.  In 
168 1  the  first  vocal  concert  without  the  usual 
accessories  of  ale  and  tobacco  was  given  in  a 
public  concert-room  built  for  the  purpose  in 
Villiers  Street,  London,  and  a  little  later  the 
concerts  of  Thomas  Britton  (born  about  165 1), 
**  the  small  coal  man,"  at  which  coffee  was  dis- 
pensed at  a  penny  a  dish,  were  founded.  While, 
then,  there  were  ample  opportunities  for  boys 
and  men  to  cultivate  chorus  singing,  women 
were  debarred  from  that  privilege  by  deeply 
rooted  prejudice.  That  this  prejudice  should 
have  yielded  more  easily  in  the  provinces,  where 
trained  boys'  voices  were  scarce,  than  in  Lon- 
don and  other  large  cities,  where  cathedral 
choirs  were  available,  is  natural.  Particularly 
in  the  northern  and  midland  counties  chorus 
singing  was  cultivated  by  both  sexes  owing  to 
the  superior  quality  of  the  voices  and  the  pro- 
nounced musical  talent  of  the  inhabitants.  As 
late  as  1832  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  of 
London,  established  in  that  year,  was  dependent 
on  the  aid  of  chorus  singers  from  the  north  of 

176 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

England  whom  it  induced  to  take  up  their  res- 
idence in  the  metropolis  by  finding  employ- 
ment for  them  in  order  to  have  them  at  hand 
for  its  concerts. 

A  strong  impulse  was  given  to  the  diffusion 
of  choral  culture  in  the  provinces  by  the  mu- 
sical festivals,  which  in  the  course  of  time  as- 
sumed dimensions  and  a  degree  of  artistic  im- 
portance in  England  as  in  no  other  country. 
Originally  these  festivals  were  nothing  more 
than  special  church  services  arranged  general- 
ly in  the  interest  of  some  charity  by  several 
cathedral  choirs  conjointly.  Among  the  ear- 
liest events  of  this  kind  were  those  fathered 
by  "  The  Corporation  of  the  Sons  of  Clergy," 
which  was  established  in  1655  and  incorporated 
by  charter  of  Charles  II.,  in  1678.  They  have 
taken  place  annually  at  St.  Paul's,  London, 
since  1697,  without,  however,  attaining  to  mu- 
sical significance.  Of  greater  importance  mu- 
sically were  the  celebrations  of  St.  Cecilia's 
day,  for  the  more  artistic  conduct  of  which 
"  The  Musical  Society  "  was  organised  at  Lon- 
don in  1683,  and  similar  associations  were 
formed  in  the  provinces  about  the  same  time. 
Among  the  poets  who  wrote  odes  for  such 
occasions  were  Dryden  and  Congreve,  and 
among  the  composers  who  furnished  musical 
settings,  Purcell  and  Blow.  At  the  last  regu- 
177 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


lar  Cecilian  festival,  held  in  London  in  1703, 
the  chorus  numbered  about  thirty  boys  and 
as  many  men,  and  the  orchestra  about  twenty- 
five. 

Of  similar  origin  but  incalculably  more  influ- 
ential were  the  "  Festivals  of  the  Three  Choirs" 
of  Gloucester,  Worcester,  and  Hereford,  which 
have  lost  nothing  of  their  vitality  with  the 
lapse  of  time.  These,  too,  had  their  incipi- 
ence in  choral  services  in  which  the  choirs  of 
the  three  mentioned  towns  participated  and 
which  in  1724  assumed  the  shape  of  annual 
meetings.  They  took  place  in  each  of  the  cit- 
ies in  rotation  and  comprised,  besides  the  ser- 
vices, two  evening  concerts  of  secular  music 
and  oratorios,  which  were  given  with  orches- 
tral accompaniment  in  the  shire  hall.  To  at- 
tract public  interest  orchestral  reinforcements 
were  brought  from  London  and  the  services 
of  the  vocal  celebrities  of  the  day  secured, 
often  at  such  expense  that  the  outlay  for  the 
concerts  exceeded  the  receipts.  Significant  of 
the  excellence  of  the  choirs  in  the  northern 
counties  was  the  announcement  of  the  appear- 
ance at  the  festival  of  1772  in  Gloucester  of  the 
"  celebrated  chorus  singers  from  Lancashire 
and  the  North  of  England  led  by  Miss  Rad- 
cliffe." 

The  influence  of  these  meetings  soon  became 
178 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

apparent  in  that  increasing  numbers  of  ama- 
teurs joined  the  clubs  into  which  the  choristers 
had  organised  themselves,  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  works  to  be  performed,  and  ac- 
quired the  taste  for  a  higher  class  of  music, 
requisite  to  the  establishment  of  the  amateur 
singing  societies  which  now  contribute  a  large 
contingent  to  the  festival  forces.  In  1836  the 
festivals  of  the  Three  Choirs  were  extended 
to  four  days'  duration,  and  on  this  plan  they 
have  been  carried  on  since.  It  is  a  pleasure 
incidentally  to  record  that  at  the  meeting  of 
1899  at  Worcester  that  admirable  work  "  Hora 
Novissima,"  by  Professor  Horatio  W.  Parker 
( 1 863-)  of  Yale  University,  was  sung,  and  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  justify  the  composer,  who  offi- 
ciated as  conductor,  in  pronouncing  the  chorus 
equal  to  any  he  had  heard  on  the  Continent. 
The  meetings  of  the  Three  Choirs  have  re- 
tained their  original  character  in  that  the  ca- 
thedral choirs  of  the  three  cities  continue  to 
constitute  the  nucleus  of  the  chorus.  As  a 
consequence  a  number  of  boys  are  to  be  found 
among  the  sopranos  and  a  number  of  men  among 
the  altos.  At  the  festival  of  the  current  year 
twenty-three  of  the  seventy-five  sopranos  were 
boys  and  twelve  of  the  fifty-eight  altos  men. 

By  far  the   most  important  of   the  provin- 
cial festivals  are  those  held  triennially  at  Bir- 
179 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


mingham.  These  were  begun  in  1768  with  a 
series  of  performances  in  St.  Philip's  Church 
and  in  the  theatre  on  King  Street  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  General  Hospital.  The  concerts  were 
followed  by  balls.  The  programme  of  the  first 
meeting  was  made  up  substantially  of  works  by 
Handel,  "  The  Messiah  "  among  them,  and  was 
given  by  a  chorus  of  forty  boys  and  men  and 
an  orchestra  of  twenty-five.  As  a  concession 
to  public  taste,  instrumental  solos  were  intro- 
duced between  the  several  parts  of  the  oratorios 
with  the  exception  of  "  The  Messiah,"  which 
escaped  such  a  fate.  In  1802  the  policy  of 
strengthening  the  chorus  by  the  engagement 
of  singers  from  London,  from  the  Lichfield  and 
Worcester  cathedral  choirs,  and  of  sopranos, 
again  from  Lancashire,  was  adopted.  It  was 
not  until  1855  that  a  local  choral  association 
was  permanently  established.  This  done,  the 
forces,  now  consisting  of  the  Birmingham  Ama- 
teur Association  augmented  by  choristers  from 
London,  whence  the  orchestra,  too,  was  taken, 
rapidly  increased  in  numbers,  so  that  in  1876  the 
chorus  aggregated  three  hundred  and  ninety 
and  the  orchestra  one  hundred  and  thirty.  The 
co-operation  of  boy  sopranos  and  men  altos  was 
gradually  dispensed  with.  At  the  festival  of  the 
present  year  the  chorus  was  composed  of  one 
hundred  and  seven  sopranos,  eighty-one  con- 
180 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

traltos,  seventy -six  tenors,  and  eighty -seven 
basses.  Of  these  all  were  paid  for  their  services 
with  the  exception  of  twenty-one — a  fact  which 
largely  accounts  for  the  balance  of  the  parts  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  body.  The  orchestra  num- 
bered one  hundred  and  twenty-one. 

That  the  attainment  of  the  highest  possible 
measure  of  musical  excellence  is  the  one  su- 
preme object  of  the  Birmingham  meetings,  and 
that  to  this  object  all  other  considerations,  lo- 
cal and  even  national,  must  yield,  was  illustrat- 
ed by  the  appointment,  in  1885,  of  Hans  Rich-- 
ter  (1843),  the  celebrated  Vienna  conductor,  to 
the  permanent  leadership.  As  a  result  they 
deservedly  enjoy  the  reputation  of  being  the 
most  notable  choral  events  of  the  present  time, 
so  that  to  have  a  work  performed  at  a  Bir- 
mingham festival  or  to  take  a  prominent  part 
in  such  a  one  is  a  highly  coveted  distinction. 
Pecuniarily,  too,  the  meetings  have  been  attend- 
ed with  remarkable  success,  having  earned  for 
the  hospital  funds  more  than  half  a  million  of 
dollars. 

Besides  stimulating  the  regularly  recurring 
festivals,  more  or  less  long-lived,  the  Handel 
cult  in  England  launched  a  large  number  of 
isolated  celebrations  during  the  last  decades  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  which  led  up  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  local  choruses.  In  illustration 
x8x 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


there  may  be  instanced  the  first  performance  of 
"  The  Messiah  "  ever  given  north  of  the  Trent, 
which  took  place  at  Halifax  about  1766.  The 
chorus  on  this  occasion  consisted  principally 
of  the  parishioners  of  a  Rev.  Allott  of  Kirk- 
heaton,  trained  by  himself.  Joah  Bates,  the 
conductor  of  the  London  Handel  Commemo- 
ration, directed  the  concert,  and  the  leader 
(principal  violin)  of  the  orchestra  was  no  less 
celebrated  a  man  than  Sir  William  Herschel,  the 
astronomer.  To  this  initiative  can  be  traced 
the  origin  of  a  number  of  choral  societies  in 
that  section  of  the  country.  In  most  cases, 
however,  cathedral  choirs  formed  the  nuclei 
of  the  festival  choruses  and  the  centres  about 
which  amateurs  clustered  until  they  had  be- 
come sufficiently  skilled  to  rely  upon  them- 
selves. Whenever  women  joined  choruses  it 
was  to  sing  the  soprano  part  only.  The  alto 
part  was  invariably  given  to  the  counter-ten- 
ors— a  practice  with  which  German  musicians, 
Mendelssohn  and  Spohr  in  particular,  found 
serious  fault. 

While  the  participation  of  women  in  the  sing- 
ing of  accompanied  works  of  the  larger  forms 
was  making  headway  in  the  provinces,  in  Lon- 
don choirs  of  boys  and  men  held  undisputed 
sway.  When  Dr.  Arne  (1710-1778),  the  rival 
of  Handel,  and  composer  of  "  Rule,  Britannia," 

182 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

introduced  female  voices  (probably  sopranos 
only)  into  his  oratorio  "  Judith  "  and  performed 
it  accordingly  in  1773,  he  was  considered  a  bold 
innovator. 

Oratorios,  excepting  "  The  Messiah/*  which 
was  seldom  dismembered,  were  rarely  given 
complete  in  London  until  the  Caecilian  Soci- 
ety, instituted  in  1785,  and  the  Sacred  Harmo- 
nic Society,  founded  in  1832,  began  their  ora- 
torio concerts  about  1836.  The  programme  of 
the  usual  Lenten  oratorio  performances,  so 
called,  were  hotchpotchs  of  sacred  and  secu- 
lar pieces. 

The  difficulties  which  the  scarcity  of  trained 
women's  voices  occasioned  to  societies  de- 
voted to  choral  culture  of  the  higher  class  in 
the  metropolis,  and  which  were  not  overcome 
until  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  are 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  Academy  of  An- 
cient Concerts,  founded  in  17 10,  of  which  Han- 
del was  a  supporter,  when  deprived  in  1734  of 
the  help  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
passed  through  a  whole  season  without  any 
treble  voices — a  situation  from  which  escape 
was  possible  only  through  the  establishment  of 
a  school  for  the  free  instruction  of  boys  in 
singing.  Towards  remedying  such  a  state  of 
affairs  by  popularising  chorus  singing.  Dr. 
John  Hullah  (18 12-1884)  largely  contributed 
183 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


when  in  1841  he  organised  the  movement  to 
instruct  school-teachers  in  the  system  of  musi- 
cal training  successfully  followed  by  Wilhelm 
(1771-1842),  director-general  of  musical  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools  of  Paris.  Whatever  may  be 
thought  of  this  system  of  "  mutual  instruction,'* 
Hullah's  efforts  were  undoubtedly  timely  and 
productive  of  far-reaching  results,  for  within 
a  period  of  twenty  years,  twenty-five  thousand 
persons  passed  through  his  classes. 

To-day  England  in  point  of  choral  culture  is 
excelled  by  no  other  country.  It  has  become 
pre-eminently  a  nation  of  chorus  singers.  Bod- 
ies of  amateurs  can  be  gathered  together  in 
almost  any  section  of  the  British  Empire,  which 
can  be  trusted  with  singing  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment,  often  from  memory,  the  favourite  ora- 
torios of  Handel,  Haydn,  and  Mendelssohn. 
The  works  of  modern  composers  are  on  that 
account  not  neglected  ;  and  although,  as  seems 
right  and  just,  English  composers  receive  the 
larger  share  of  that  encouragement  which  comes 
from  the  knowledge  that  the  fruits  of  their  la- 
bours will  not  be  consigned  unheard  to  libraries 
and  store-rooms,  the  best  musical  products  of 
other  countries  are  not  overlooked. 

In  the  matter  of  giving  choral  festivals  on  a 
large  scale  England  to-day  holds  the  highest 
place.  In  no  other  country  would  it  be  pos- 
184 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  England 

sible  with  so  little  efifort  to  assemble  such 
masses  of  choristers  capable  of  singing  almost 
without  rehearsals  HandeUs  better  known  ora- 
torios, as  take  part  in  the  Handel  festivals. 
And  while  the  artistic  value  of  such  stupendous 
performances  is  not  above  suspicion,  the  fact 
that  they  are  practicable  speaks  volumes  for  the 
faithfulness  with  which  England  has  guarded 
the  heritage  of  her  adopted  son. 


185 


IX 

Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

WHEN,  in  1620,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed 
at  Plymouth  Rock,  they  brought  with 
them  a  hatred  of  musical  culture  which  has 
no  parallel  in  history.  The  enmity  of  the 
early  Christians  towards  pagan  art  was  associ- 
ated with  the  desire  to  give  to  the  Church  its 
own  art,  one  different  from  that  of  the  pagans, 
but  the  enmity  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  was 
directed  against  the  musical  art  as  such,  and 
against  anything  and  everything  that  could 
tend  to  foster  it.  That  music  in  New  England 
should  have  not  only  recovered  from  the  blows 
dealt  by  Puritan  intolerance  but  in  its  repro- 
ductive branches,  and  particularly  that  of  cho- 
rus singing,  should  have  risen  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  artistic  independence  as  quickly  as  it 
did,  is  little  short  of  marvellous. 

When  the  eighteen  years  of  the  Great  Re- 
bellion in   England   (from   1642  to  1660),  dur- 
ing which  under  Puritan  fanaticism  choruses 
were  banished  from  the  churches,  music-books 
186 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

burned,  and  organs  destroyed,  had  passed, 
enough  of  love  and  taste  for  music  had  survived 
to  make  possible  the  early  reinstatement  of 
cathedral  service ;  and  although  the  character 
of  church  music  was  lowered  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  operatic  style,  rapid  progress  was 
made  in  the  practice  of  the  vocal  and  instru- 
mental art.  In  New  England,  where  the  Puritan 
power  remained  supreme,  no  such  reaction 
could  take  place ;  innate  love  of  culture  and  of 
refinement  was  the  only  agency  which  could 
be  counted  upon  to  bring  about  the  reforma- 
tion necessary  to  musical  development.  The 
presence  of  this  agency  soon  manifested  itself 
by  giving  rise  to  a  controversy  which  was  car- 
ried on  for  more  than  a  century. 

The  question  as  to  whether  singing  should 
be  allowed  at  all  at  divine  service  was  more 
quickly  disposed  of  than  the  one  as  to  whether 
singing  in  the  "  new  or  rulable  way  "  or  sing- 
ing in  the  "  usual  way  **  should  be  encouraged. 
By  singing  in  the  usual  way  was  meant  the 
singing  of  a  few  well-known  tunes  only,  sup- 
posedly according  to  usage  (although  there 
was  none)  and  without  the  adventitious  help 
of  notes,  or,  rather,  regardless  of  any  enforced 
uniformity  in  melody  and  rhythm.  Singing  in 
the  new  way  involved  the  singing  of  the  old 
tunes  as  set  down  in  musical  notation  and  the 
187 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


learning  of  new  ones.  The  latter,  it  was  freely 
claimed,  would  inevitably  lead  to  Quakerism, 
Popery,  and  to  the  introduction  into  divine 
service  of  instrumental  music,  which  was  held 
to  be  the  invention  of  the  Evil  One.  A  new 
tune  could  be  adopted  only  after  grave  consid- 
eration of  the  matter  by  the  church  or  even  the 
entire  parish. 

According  to  contemporaneous  testimony 
the  consequences  of  singing  in  the  usual  way, 
as  practised  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century, 
were  appalling.  It  appears  not  to  have  been 
exceptional  for  the  congregation  to  sing  parts 
of  two  or  three  different  tunes  to  one  stanza  of 
a  hymn,  even  to  sing  different  tunes  at  the  same 
time.  So  slowly  were  these  medleys  sung  that 
it  was  often  necessary  to  take  breath  twice  on 
one  and  the  same  tone  and  word-syllable. 

The  champions  of  the  new  way  finally  pre- 
vailed and  also  succeeded  in  silencing  the  ob- 
jections which  were  urged  against  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  singing  schools  indispensable 
to  the  carrying  out  of  the  innovation.  Grad- 
ually, though  not  without  much  opposition,  it 
was  even  agreed  upon  that  those  who  frequent- 
ed the  schools  might  sit  together,  and  thus 
church  choirs  were  formed.  The  fears  of  those 
who  anticipated  the  introduction  of  instru- 
ments with  the  adoption  of  the  new  way  were 

188 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  In  America 

now  realised.  As  the  duty  of  giving  the  pitch 
could  no  longer  be  left  to  the  momentary  in- 
spiration of  the  minister  or  deacon,  the  hymns 
being  set  for  several  parts,  it  was  henceforth 
intrusted  to  the  leader  of  the  choir,  and  he, 
depending  on  a  pitch-pipe — generally  a  large 
wooden  one,  not  unlike  a  mouse-trap  in  ap- 
pearance —  brought  the  dreaded  instrument 
into  the  church,  as  surreptitiously  as  possible, 
however.  The  pitch-pipe  was  followed  in  due 
time  by  the  bass-viol  and  other  stringed  instru- 
ments and  wind  instruments.  The  first  organ 
in  Boston,  presented  to  Queen's  Chapel  in 
1713,  was  permitted,  after  much  wrangling,  to 
be  set  up  in  1714. 

With  the  singing  school,  which  became  uni- 
versal after  the  second  decade  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  psalm-tune  teacher,  a  type 
unique  in  the  history  of  music  in  America, 
made  his  appearance.  The  original  psalm-tune 
teacher  was  a  religious  enthusiast  who,  en- 
dowed with  a  voice,  generally  tenor,  of  more 
than  ordinary  sweetness,  with  more  than  av- 
erage musical  intelligence,  and  with  an  engag- 
ing manner,  became  by  natural  selection  a 
leader.  His  principal  aim  and  object  was  to  de- 
vise and  put  into  execution  a  practical  method 
of  choral  instruction,  regardless  of  the  rules  of 
musical  theory,  of  the  knowledge  of  which  he 

189 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


was,  as  a  rule,  entirely  innocent.  His  life  was 
a  peripatetic  one,  for  during  the  winter  months 
he  rode  from  one  town  of  his  circuit  to  the 
other,  satisfied  with  a  small  remuneration  be- 
sides board  for  himself  and  horse,  in  providing 
which  the  patrons  of  the  school  alternated. 
His  repertory  was  confined  to  hymn  tunes  and 
the  current  anthems.  He  was  the  natural  ally 
of  the  psalm-tune  composer  and  publisher,  both 
of  whom  were  largely  dependent  on  him  for  the 
popularity  of  their  newly  issued  compilations. 

The  first  psalm-tune  composer  who  gained 
fame,  and,  indeed,  the  first  American  composer, 
speaking  euphemistically,  was  William  Billings 
(1746- 1 800),  a  native  of  Boston  and  a  tanner  by 
trade.  Impelled  by  his  natural  musical  tem- 
perament, he  tried  his  hand  at  harmonising, 
then  at  composing,  and  in  1770  published  his 
first  collection  of  compositions  consisting  of 
psalm  tunes,  anthems,  and  canons.  Encouraged 
by  the  reception  of  this  book,  he  was  inspired 
to  new  attempts,  and  when  the  Revolutionary 
War  broke  out,  added  to  his  popularity  by  his 
patriotic  songs. 

Billings  was  unquestionably  a  man  of  unusu- 
al musical  endowments.  He  was  entirely  self- 
taught,  and  as  his  means  for  acquiring  knowl- 
edge were  very  limited  —  good  theoretical 
treatises  were  rare  in  America  at  that  time — his 

190 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

attainments  were  necessarily  of  the  most  super- 
ficial sort.  Yet  he  had  what  were  in  his  es- 
timation high  ideals.  Not  satisfied  with  set- 
ting his  melodies  to  simple  harmonies,  he 
devoted  himself  to  composing  in  the  so-called 
*'fuguing  style,"  which  he  had  probably  ob- 
served in  English  choruses,  and  which  in  its 
novelty  and  liveliness  proved  very  attractive  to 
singers  accustomed  to  plainly  harmonised  hymn 
tunes.  Unfamiliar  with  the  rules  of  harmony 
and  counterpoint,  and  therefore  undaunted  by 
the  difficulties  of  this  style,  Billings  wrote  on, 
though  the  results  often  suggest  the  discant 
of  the  twelfth  or  the  organum  of  the  eleventh 
century ;  for  he  had  the  courage  of  his  con- 
victions, which  he  defended  cleverly  with  such 
aphorisms  as  "  Nature  is  the  best  Dictator  " 
and  "  Art  is  subservient  to  Genius."  Unfortu- 
nately, his  dicta  were  widely  accepted  and  fol- 
lowed, for  a  time  at  least,  in  practice. 

Billings's  personality  was  such  as  to  attract 
notice  on  account  of  its  very  ugliness.  He  was 
somewhat  deformed,  one  of  his  arms  and  one  of 
his  legs  being  slightly  withered ;  he  was  blind 
in  one  eye,  possessed  of  a  stentorian  voice,  and 
was  given  to  eccentric  habits,  perhaps  inten- 
tionally. Yet  he  possessed  the  faculty  of  at- 
tracting and  impressing  people  and  the  author- 
ity which  makes  the  leader. 

191 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


In  1774  Billings  established  at  Stoughton, 
Massachusetts,  the  "  Sacred  Singing  School  "  of 
forty-eight  members :  twenty  *'  singers  of  ten- 
or," of  whom  thirteen  were  women,  the  rest 
men  ;  eighteen  "  singers  of  treble,"  all  women ; 
five  **  singers  of  counter  ; "  and  five  "  singers  of 
bass,"  all  men.  Out  of  this  grew  the  Stough- 
ton Musical  Society,  which  was  founded  on  No- 
vember 7,  1786,  and  is  still  in  existence.  It  was 
probably  the  first  stable  association  of  amateur 
singers  organised  in  America,  and  it  is  a  cause 
for  justifiable  pride  to  Americans  that  it  ante- 
dated the  Singakademie  of  Berlin  by  five  years. 
This  fact  is  the  more  significant  because  the 
Stoughton  Society  was  not  the  result  of  a  spo- 
radic impulse  but  representative  of  a  strong 
movement  which  gained  impetus  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity,  for,  according  to  the  record  of 
Charles  C.  Perkins,  historian  of  the  Handel  and 
Haydn  Society  of  Boston,  there  were  founded  : 
in  the  same  year  the  Boston  Independent  Mu- 
sical Society,  which  gave  a  concert  at  King's 
Chapel  in  1788;  in  1804  the  Franklin;  in  1806 
the  Salem;  in  1807  the  Massachusetts  Musical; 
in  1 81 2  the  Lock  Hospital;  and  the  Norfolk, 
date  not  mentioned.  On  comparing  with  this 
the  generally  accepted  record  of  German  ama- 
teur vocal  societies  for  the  same  period,  it  ap- 
pears that  in  1812  the  regularly  established  ama- 

192 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

tear  choruses  in  America  outnumbered  those 
in  Germany  by  at  least  one,  possibly  by  two. 

While  this  and  other  similar  comparisons  that 
might  be  instituted  yield  results  favourable  to 
choral  culture  in  America,  such  would  not  be  the 
case  were  they  extended  to  the  quality  of  the 
work  done.  It  can  be  said,  without  belittling 
the  services  rendered  to  choral  music  by  the 
early  psalm-tune  teachers  and  composers,  and 
without  impugning  their  sincerity  of  purpose, 
that  what  they  accomplished  was  necessarily 
crude  and  unfinished,  and  that  the  methods  and 
tendencies  which  they  introduced  for  want  of 
better  knowledge,  and  which  have  even  now  not 
been  completely  set  aside,  were  shallow  and  in- 
artistic. An  admirable  opportunity  to  judge  of 
the  musical  culture  of  that  period  was  afforded 
by  one  hundred  members  of  the  Stoughton  So- 
ciety when  they  performed  two  programmes 
made  up  entirely  of  hymns  and  anthems  by 
Billings  and  other  pioneer  American  compos- 
ers, at  the  Chicago  Columbian  Exposition. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  their  systems 
and  products  will  not  bear  close  inspection,  it 
is  remarkable  that  the  early  psalm-tune  teach- 
ers and  psalm-tune  composers  accomplished 
what  they  did,  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that 
their  point  of  departure  was  that  of  the  most 
vitiated  taste,  that  they  laboured  in  the  face  of 
193 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  bitterest  opposition,  and,  above  all,  that 
they  were  thrown  entirely  on  their  own  re- 
sources in  the  absence  of  good  theoretical  trea- 
tises and  musical  literature. 

With  increasing  facilities  for  intercourse  with 
the  Old  World,  and  with  growing  prosperity,  the 
writings  of  European  musical  authorities  and 
the  works  of  Handel  and  Haydn  were  more 
easily  obtainable,  while  educated  and  experi- 
enced foreign  musicians  made  their  homes  in 
America  in  numbers,  and  disseminated  matur- 
er  ideas  of  musical  instruction.  The  effect  of 
these  new  conditions  was  illustrated  by  the  es- 
tablishment, at  Boston,  in  1815,  of  the  society 
which  rendered  incalculable  service  to  the 
cause  of  choral  culture  in  America,  and  which, 
from  its  very  inception,  testified  to  the  loftiness 
of  its  aims  by  adopting  the  name  of  **  The 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society."  It  became  to 
America  what  the  Singakademie  of  Berlin  was 
to  Europe — the  institution  which  served  as  a 
model  for  amateur  choral  organisations  its  na- 
tive country  over. 

The  direct  impulse  for  the  foundation  of  this 
society  seems  to  have  been  given  by  a  series  of 
musical  celebrations  in  which  public  enthusi- 
asm over  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Ghent 
on  December  24,  18 14,  sought  vent  at  Boston. 
These  culminated  in  a  Peace  Jubilee,  held  the 

194 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

year  following  on  Washington's  birthday,  in 
which  a  chorus  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  and 
an  orchestra  of  fifty  participated,  and  which  at- 
tracted unusual  attention  and  focussed  the  dif- 
fused interest  in  choral  performances.  As  a 
result  an  invitation  was  issued  on  March  24, 
181 5,  by  a  number  of  music-lovers,  to  consider 
"  the  expediency  and  practicability  of  forming 
a  society  to  consist  of  a  selection  from  the  sev- 
eral choirs,  for  cultivating  and  improving  a  cor- 
rect taste  in  the  performance  of  sacred  music, 
and  also  to  introduce  into  more  general  prac- 
tice the  works  of  Handel,  Haydn,  and  other 
eminent  composers."  Accordingly,  "  The  Han- 
del and  Haydn  Society,"  the  name  which  had 
been  decided  upon  beforehand,  was  organised 
on  Thursday  morning,  April  20th,  a  constitu- 
tion adopted  and  signed  by  thirty-one  gentle- 
men, and  a  board  of  government  chosen  with 
Thomas  S.  Webb  as  president. 

On  Christmas-day  of  the  same  year  the  first 
public  concert  of  the  society  took  place,  its  pro- 
gramme consisting  of  the  first  part  of  Haydn's 
"  Creation  "  and  selections  from  Handel's 
works.  The  chorus  numbered  ninety  men  and 
ten  women,  the  orchestra  about  twelve  pieces, 
assisted  by  an  organ.  There  were  nine  hundred 
and  forty-five  persons  in  the  audience,  and  the 
amount  realised  from  the  sale  of  tickets  was 
195     , 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


five  hundred  and  thirty-three  dollars.  On 
Christmas-day,  1818,  the  society  for  the  first 
time  devoted  an  entire  concert  to  a  single 
work :  **  The  Messiah." 

Notwithstanding  the  encomiums  which  were 
lavished  on  the  performances  of  the  Handel  and 
Haydn  Society  at  the  time,  it  is  improbable 
that  during  the  early  years  of  its  existence  they 
attained  to  any  degree  of  artistic  excellence. 
While  women  were  not  entirely  prevented  by 
prejudice  of  long  standing  from  singing  in  the 
chorus,  they  participated  to  a  limited  extent 
only,  and,  above  all,  hesitated  to  "  lead,"  as  car- 
rying the  soprano  was  called.  At  best  a  few 
joined  the  men  practised  in  the  use  of  the  fal- 
setto and  the  small  number  of  boys  sufficiently 
trained  to  be  serviceable  in  taking  the  soprano 
part.  The  English  custom  of  giving  the  alto 
part  to  counter-tenors  was  followed  as  a  matter 
of  course. 

In  1817  the  chorus  of  the  society  consisted  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  men  and  boys,  who 
sang  all  the  four  parts,  and  of  only  twenty 
women,  who  assisted  the  tenors  mainly.  In  the 
same  year  the  advisability  of  officially  inviting 
women  to  lend  their  help  at  rehearsals  and  con- 
certs was  favourably  considered,  though  not 
without  opposition.  The  result  of  this  step 
was  at  first  harmful,  as  the  women  were  as- 
196 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

signed  to  the  tenor  part,  which  they  naturally 
sang  an  octave  too  high,  thereby  creating  the 
most  excruciating  harmonic  progressions.  Yet 
this  method,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Mr. 
Perkins,  held  good  until  Dr.  Lowell  Mason 
(i 792-1 872),  who  accepted  the  presidency  of  the 
society  in  1827,  insisted  on  the  proper  distribu- 
tion of  the  voices. 

Until  1847,  when  the  first  conductor  was  elect- 
ed in  the  person  of  Charles  E.  Horn  (1786- 
1849),  ^^  English  opera  singer  and  composer, 
the  presidents,  with  few  exceptions  amateurs, 
officiated  in  that  capacity.  At  the  concerts 
their  duty  consisted  principally  in  occupying 
the  conductor  s  stand  or  box,  not  unlike  a  pul- 
pit, the  responsibility  of  leading  being  assumed 
by  the  principal  violinist  of  the  orchestra. 

It  is  evident  that  under  such  circumstances 
the  attainment  of  artistic  results  was  out  of  the 
question.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  oratorios  by  Handel  and  Haydn  could 
have  been  attempted  at  all.  Yet  these  efforts 
created  on  the  part  of  the  singers  a  desire  to 
study,  and  on  the  part  of  the  public  a  desire  to 
hear  a  high  class  of  choral  works,  so  that  when 
professional  musicians  educated  in  European 
institutions  and  versed  in  European  methods 
drifted  to  America  in  numbers,  they  found  con- 
ditions favourable  to  the  exercise  of  their  best 

197 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


powers,  and  were  enabled  in  a  comparatively 
short  time  to  establish  loftier  standards.  In 
1852  no  less  versatile  a  musician  than  Carl 
Bergmann  (i 821-1876),  afterward  conductor  of 
the  New  York  Philharmonic  Society,  assumed 
the  leadership  of  the  Handel  and  Haydn 
Society,  and  two  years  later  Carl  Zerrahn 
(1826-)  was  intrusted  with  its  musical  desti- 
nies, which  he  guided  with  conspicuous  success 
for  forty-one  years.  To  him  is  due  much  of 
the  credit  of  having  hastened  the  promotion  of 
choral  culture  in  America,  to  which  the  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society  of  Boston  is  entitled. 

In  New  York  choral  culture  proceeded  on 
lines  independent  of  those  followed  in  New 
England.  Under  the  Dutch  regime  there  was 
nothing  to  hope  from  the  Church  in  the  way  of 
musical  effort.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
was  as  firmly  opposed  to  the  slightest  depart- 
ure from  established  usage  as  were  the  Puri- 
tans. Yet  of  such  a  bitter  controversy  as  was 
carried  on  in  New  England  and  of  such  a  type 
of  choral  activity  as  there  grew  up  under  it, 
only  faint  traces  are  to  be  found  in  New  York. 
Not  until  the  Anglican  Church  through  its 
authorised  representative,  Trinity  Church,  in- 
corporated in  1693,  had  become  a  religious  and 
social  power,  did  interest  in  chorus  singing 
publicly  manifest  itself. 
198 


CARL  ZERRAHN. 


cc       c     c     ,«, 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

Trinity  Church  was  supplied  with  organists 
and  choristers  from  England.  While  these 
were  undoubtedly  under  the  spell  of  the  oper- 
atic style  cultivated  in  the  churches  of  the  par- 
ent country  after  the  Restoration,  they  enter- 
tained much  maturer  ideas  concerning  music 
in  general  and  chorus  singing  in  particular 
than  were  current  at  the  time  in  New  Eng- 
land. 

Dr.  Fr6d6ric  Louis  Ritter  (i 834-1 891),  in 
**  Music  in  America,"  makes  the  statement, 
without,  however,  mentioning  on  what  author- 
ity, that  "  The  Messiah "  was  performed  in 
Trinity  Church  with  organ  accompaniment  on 
January  9,  1770,  and  repeated  on  October  3d  of 
the  year  following,  and  in  April,  1772.  While 
these  performances,  if  they  really  took  place, 
were  in  all  probability  in  the  nature  of  special 
services  only  and  were  given  by  the  choristers 
of  Trinity  aided  by  a  few  amateurs  interested 
in  the  work,  they  bear  eloquent  testimony  to  the 
progressive  spirit  of  the  choir  of  Trinity  and 
undoubtedly  attracted  attention  to  the  orato- 
rio, which  was  so  influential  in  furthering  the 
cause  of  choral  culture  in  England  at  the  time. 

The  oldest  reliable  records  of  choral  societies 
in  New  York  go  back  to  the  third  decade  of 
this  century  only.  That  such  societies  existed 
before  that  time  admits  of  little  doubt,  for  the 

199 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


records  referred  to  in  speaking  of  public  cho- 
ral performances  do  not  mention  them  as  of 
unusual  occurrence.  Like  the  organisations 
regarding  which  definite  information  is  obtain- 
able, the  earlier  ones,  too,  probably  had  their  in- 
ception in  Episcopal  Church  choirs,  which  were 
required  by  the  nature  of  their  duties  to  be 
efficient.  The  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  of 
New  York, — its  name  was  evidently  suggested 
by  that  of  the  then  firmly  established  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society  of  Boston — which  was  the 
result  of  a  movement  to  give  a  concert  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  funds  to  rebuild  Zion 
Church,  appears  not  to  have  survived  long. 
Its  place  was  taken  by  two  organisations :  the 
New  York  Choral  Society  and  the  New  York 
Sacred  Music  Society,  both  of  which  took 
shape  in  1823.  The  former,  to  judge  by  the  pro- 
gramme of  its  first  concert,  was  at  the  start  the 
more  ambitious  and,  perhaps  for  that  reason, 
the  more  short-lived  of  the  two.  This  concert 
took  place  at  St.  George's  Church,  Beekman 
Street,  on  April  20,  1824,  the  choir  numbering 
fifty  and  the  orchestra  twenty.  Its  scheme 
embraced  fourteen  numbers,  of  which  ten 
were  by  Handel,  three  of  them  for  chorus.  In 
addition  to  these  the  choir  sang  a  motet  by 
Mozart  and  the  **  Hallelujah "  from  Beetho- 
ven's '*  The  Mount  of  Olives,"  the  latter,  which 


•^ 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

was  heard  for  the  first  time  in  America  on 
this  occasion,  with  such  effect  that  the  audi- 
ence demanded  its  repetition.  This  programme 
and  the  enthusiasm  which  its  performance 
aroused  speak  well  for  the  early  musical  taste 
of  the  metropolis. 

The  New  York  Sacred  Music  Society,  which 
in  a  short  time  came  to  be  considered  one  of 
the  most  efficient  choral  bodies  then  existing  in 
America,  grew  out  of  the  choir  of  Zion  Church, 
which,  having  been  refused  an  increase  of  salary 
as  well  as  permission  to  give  a  concert  in  lieu 
of  it,  severed  its  connection  with  the  church 
and  continued  its  activity  as  an  independent 
body.  Its  first  concert  took  place  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  in  Prevost  Street,  on  March  15, 
1824.  In  1827  the  society  gave  a  concert  with 
a  chorus  of  sixty  and  an  orchestra  of  twenty- 
seven,  which  was  made  memorable  by  the  great 
Malibran's  (i 808-1 836)  singing  of  "Angels 
Ever  Bright  and  Fair,"  and  added  materially 
to  the  choir's  prestige.  On  November  18,  1831, 
it  entered  upon  its  real  mission  by  giving  "  The 
Messiah  "  as  the  first  of  the  series  of  oratorio 
performances  which  it  carried  on  successfully 
until  1849. 

Although  none  of  the  many  choral  societies 
which  sprang  up  from  time  to  time  had  a  long 
career  until  the  Oratorio  Society  was  organised, 
201 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


the  lovers  of  choral  music  in  New  York  were 
not  without  opportunities  to  keep  in  touch  with 
the  older  masterpieces  of  choral  composition 
and  to  become  acquainted  with  the  more  im- 
portant new  ones.  On  the  grave  of  one  chorus 
another  was  sure  to  blossom  into  life.  Finally, 
in  1873,  ^c  agencies  and  conditions  necessary 
to  the  establishment  of  a  choral  institution  on 
a  permanent  basis  were  present. 

In  1871  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch  (1832-1885) 
was  called  to  New  York  to  assume  the  direc- 
torship of  the  Arion,  a  German  Maennerchor 
the  activity  of  which,  like  that  of  most  male 
choruses,  was  necessarily  circumscribed  both 
as  to  artistic  possibilities  and  as  to  influence  on 
musical  culture  at  large.  Dr.  Damrosch's  in- 
quiries in  regard  to  the  opportunities  of  finding 
a  wider  and  more  congenial  sphere  by  founding 
a  society  of  mixed  voices  were  met  with  dis- 
couraging replies  until  1873,  when,  at  the  initi- 
ative of  a  lady  who  had  been  a  member  of  a 
chorus  at  Cologne  conducted  by  Ferdinand 
Hiller  (1811-1885),  a  number  of  music-lovers 
agreed  to  make  the  attempt  to  interest  capable 
singers  in  such  a  project.  The  use  of  Trinity 
Chapel  having  been  secured  for  the  meetings 
of  the  choir,  the  first  rehearsal  was  held,  fifteen 
or  twenty  persons  being  present. 

The  innumerable  obstacles  which  invariably 
ao2 


•        •  •••. 


•  •  ?i.? 


LEOPOLD  DAMROSCH. 


c  c       c  t 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

confront  such  an  organisation  were  overcome 
with  the  aid  of  the  devotion  of  the  singers  and 
the  self-sacrificing  efforts  of  the  business  admin- 
istration, which  the  high  aims,  the  zeal,  and  the 
infectious  enthusiasm  of  the  conductor,  who, 
as  Fasch  in  Berlin  had  done,  lent  his  services 
without  any  remuneration,  did  not  permit  to  lag 
for  a  moment.  The  first  entertainment,  given 
by  the  new  society  on  December  3,  1873,  with 
a  chorus  of  between  fifty  and  sixty,  forecast  the 
lofty  purpose  of  the  organisation  and  its  conduc- 
tor. The  programme  was  made  up  principally 
of  choral  works  by  Palestrina,  Bach,  Handel, 
Mozart,  and  Mendelssohn,  and  its  performance 
called  forth  many  tributes  of  acknowledgment 
and  enlisted  the  co-operation  of  new  members. 
The  expectations  of  arousing  public  interest  in 
the  organisation  were  modest  indeed.  Mr.  H. 
E.  Krehbiel  relates  in  his  admirable  monograph 
"  Notes  on  Choral  Music,"  from  which  the  facts 
relating  to  the  Oratorio  Society  are  gleaned, 
that  as  no  public  announcement  of  the  second 
concert  had  been  made,  no  measures  for  the 
sale  of  tickets  of  admission  at  the  door  had  been 
taken,  and  that  the  business  management  was 
much  surprised  when  the  necessity  of  such 
measures  was  made  apparent  on  the  evening 
of  the  performance  by  the  crowd's  waiting  to 
purchase  tickets.  A  box-office  was  hastily  im- 
203 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


provised  and  between  twenty  and  twenty-five 
dollars  added  to  the  society's  funds. 

With  the  third  concert,  which  took  place  in 
Stein  way  Hall,  on  May  12,  1874,  the  Oratorio 
Society,  still  numbering  less  than  a  hundred 
singers,  entered  upon  the  field  in  which  it  has 
since  remained  conspicuously  active,  by  the  suc- 
cessful production  with  full  orchestral  accom- 
paniment of  Handel's  "  Samson."  The  chorus 
gradually  grew  in  numbers  and  efficiency  and 
placed  to  its  credit  performances — not  a  few  of 
them  notable  ones — of  the  classical  oratorios  and 
cantatas  which  make  up  the  standard  repertory 
of  such  fully  equipped  choral  institutions,  as 
well  as  of  works  of  the  modern  school  of  compo- 
sition. The  fact  that  the  Oratorio  Society  is 
still  in  full  vigour,  while  numerous  efforts  to 
found  similar  organisations  in  New  York  have 
been  only  temporarily  successful,  affords  elo- 
quent proof  of  the  earnest  spirit  which  was  in- 
fused from  the  very  beginning  into  its  active 
members,  and  of  the  wisdom  with  which  its  ad- 
ministrative system  was  framed. 

It  was  principally  under  the  influence  em- 
anating from  the  singing  schools  of  New  Eng- 
land and  spread  abroad  by  New  England  sing- 
ing school  teachers  and  their  disciples  that 
choral  culture  in  its  rudimentary  form  found 
its  way  into  other  sections  of  the  country.  The 
204 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

extent  to  which  it  was  subsequently  developed 
depended  on  local  conditions  and  upon  the 
capability  and  seriousness  of  purpose  of  those 
who  assumed  the  duty  of  directing  it.  In  the 
course  of  time,  by  the  process  of  natural  selec- 
tion, centres  were  formed  about  which  the  mu- 
sical activity  of  certain  sections  revolved. 

In  the  West,  Cincinnati  became  such  a  cen- 
tre. As  early  as  1800 — Cincinnati  was  found- 
ed in  1788  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1814 — 
it  boasted  of  a  singing  school,  and  in  a  call  for 
subscriptions  to  "  The  Western  Harmonist,"  is- 
sued in  181 5,  the  existence  of  singing  societies 
is  referred  to.  A  choral  society  was  founded 
in  18 16,  and  there  is  record  of  a  concert  given 
three  years  later  by  the  Haydn  Society,  in 
which  choruses  from  oratorios  by  Handel  and 
Haydn  were  sung.  From  that  time  on  choral 
activity,  though  fluctuating,  gathered  impetus 
until  with  the  first  May  Festival,  held  in  1873, 
it  assumed  proportions  and  accomplished  re- 
sults which  deservedly  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  whole  country. 

The  German  population  of  Cincinnati  was 
noted  for  its  efforts  to  promote  the  cultivation 
of  the  German  part-song.  It  was  at  Cincin- 
nati that  the  first  Sangerfest  in  America  was 
held  in  1849,  ^"ly  ^^ur  years  after  such  re- 
unions had  been  introduced  in  Germany  at 
205 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Wurzburg ;  and  it  was  the  Sangerfest  of  1870, 
in  which  two  thousand  singers  took  part  and 
for  which  a  special  building  was  erected,  that 
suggested  the  idea  of  arranging  a  similar  fes- 
tival with  the  aid  of  the  mixed  choruses  of  Cin- 
cinnati and  the  adjacent  towns.  In  the  spring 
of  1872  the  plan  was  broached  to  Theodore 
Thomas  (183 5-),  who  was  at  the  time  making 
a  tour  through  the  West  with  his  orchestra. 
He  entered  heartily  into  the  project,  insisting, 
however,  on  the  elimination  of  the  festive  feat- 
ures so  indispensable  to  the  Sangerfest  scheme. 
Accordingly,  the  first  Cincinnati  Music  Festi- 
val took  place  from  May  6  to  May  9,  1873,  un- 
der the  direction  of  Mr.  Thomas,  thirty-six  so- 
cieties, aggregating  one  thousand  and  eighty- 
three  singers,  of  whom  six  hundred  and  forty 
were  residents  of  Cincinnati,  participating.  The 
orchestra  numbered  one  hundred  and  eight 
pieces.  In  the  course  of  subsequent  festivals 
the  assistance  of  outside  choral  contingents 
was  dispensed  with,  and  in  1880  the  local  fes- 
tival chorus,  the  membership  of  which  has 
since  fluctuated  between  three  and  six  hun- 
dred, was  organised. 

The  record  of  the  Cincinnati  Music  Festivals 

— they  have  taken  place   biennially  with  one 

exception  —  is  a    proud  one  and  a  monument 

to  the  genius  and  artistic  conscientiousness  of 

206 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

Mr.  Thomas,  to  the  faithfulness  of  the  chorus 
singers  of  the  city,  and  to  the  public  spirit  of 
its  inhabitants. 

Among"  other  permanently  organised  choirs 
in  the  West,  the  influence  of  which  has  ex- 
tended beyond  their  immediate  environments, 
the  Apollo  Club  of  Chicago,  founded  in  1872 
as  a  male  chorus  and  converted  four  years 
later  into  a  society  of  mixed  voices  by  W.  L. 
Tomlins,  has  assumed  a  leading  position. 

Of  long  standing  are  many  of  the  German 
organisations  to  be  found  throughout  this 
country.  They  devote  themselves  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  study  of  part-songs  for  male 
voices  and,  being  invariably  connected  with  in- 
stitutions social  in  character,  do  not  often  ap- 
pear in  public.  Most  of  the  German  mixed 
choirs,  of  which  there  are  a  number  of  efficient 
ones,  are  governed  by  the  same  circumstances. 
Notwithstanding  their  exclusiveness,  these  so- 
cieties contributed  their  share  towards  stimulat- 
ing the  practice  of  choral  music,  especially  in 
the  West,  at  a  time  when  chorus  singing  was  in 
its  infancy  there.  That  one  or  the  other  of 
them  steadfastly  held  in  view  the  loftiest  aims 
was  illustrated  when  on  March  27th  of  last  year 
the  Bach  choir  of  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  consisting 
of  about  one  hundred  singers,  produced  com- 
plete for  the  first  time  in  America  Bach's  stu- 

207 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


pendous  mass  in  B  minor.  This  choir  repre- 
sented the  result  of  the  musical  activity  which 
was  begun  in  that  place  by  the  Moravians  in  the 
shape  of  a  Collegium  Musicum  probably  more 
than  a  century  ago. 

Of  recent  years  the  singing  of  part-songs  for 
men's  voices  has  been  very  generally  taken  up 
by  Americans  and  with  such  earnestness  that, 
so  far  as  technical  perfection  is  concerned,  ex- 
cellent results  have  been  achieved.  It  is  to  its 
mixed  choral  societies,  however,  that  a  com- 
munity must  look  for  the  diffusion  of  sound 
musical  taste.  Although  these  have  steadily 
increased  in  number  and  capability,  the  benefit 
to  be  derived  from  the  opportunities  which 
they  offer  for  participating  in  the  practice  and 
listening  to  the  performance  of  choral  works  of 
a  high  class  is  but  little  appreciated.  Good 
choruses  are  not  numerous  because  the  dignity 
and  educational  value  of  chorus  singing  are  not 
understood.  Few,  even  of  the  best  organisa- 
tions, enter  upon  a  new  season  confident  of  the 
public  support  necessary  to  their  very  life. 
Much  less  are  they  in  the  position  to  pursue 
a  course  in  accord  with  the  lofty  ideals  which 
they  may  have  in  view  regardless  of  popular 
prejudice.  In  the  whole  range  of  choral  litera- 
ture there  is  but  one  work  the  performance 
of  which,  if  given  about  Christmastide,  can 
208 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

be  relied  upon  for  liberal  patronage.  That 
work  is  "  The  Messiah,"  and  its  production  is 
looked  upon  as  a  religious  function.  Under 
such  conditions  it  is  impossible  to  adopt  a 
policy  calculated  systematically  to  develop  the 
technical  capabilities  and  powers  of  compre- 
hension of  the  chorus  and  to  educate  the  taste 
of  the  public. 

It  was  largely  the  necessity  of  employing 
adventitious  means  to  attract  the  public  that 
called  into  life  the  musical  festivals,  so  called, 
which  of  recent  years  have  become  common  in 
the  smaller  towns  and  rely  in  a  great  measure 
on  the  drawing  power  of  vocal  celebrities  for 
their  pecuniary  success.  With  all  their  obvi- 
ous disadvantages  and  their  inconsistencies  as 
educational  institutions,  these  festivals  have 
the  merit  at  least  of  making  it  possible  occa- 
sionally to  provide  orchestral  accompaniment 
and  capable  soloists  for  the  performance  of  the 
choral  works  mastered  after  months  of  labour — a 
luxury  not  ordinarily  within  reach  of  societies 
remote  from  the  musical  centres.  While  the 
larger  number  of  festivals  have  been  planned 
with  this  end  in  view,  some  of  them,  such  as 
those  occurring  annually  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
had  their  origin  in  conventions  organised  by  the 
psalm-tune  teachers  for  the  improvement  of 
church  music. 

209 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


Events  of  extraordinary  magnitude  yet  of 
artistic  dignity  were  the  musical  festivals  giv- 
en in  1 88 1  at  New  York  under  the  direction  of 
Dr,  Leopold  Damrosch  with  a  chorus  of  twelve 
hundred  and  an  orchestra  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty ;  and  the  one  which  took  place  in  the  same 
city  the  year  following  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Theodore  Thomas,  when  the  chorus,  made 
up  of  societies  from  New  York,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, Worcester,  Baltimore,  and  Reading, 
numbered  three  thousand,  and  the  orchestra 
three  hundred  and  two. 

Almost  entirely  neglected  in  this  country  is 
the  study  of  unaccompanied  choral  music  for 
mixed  voices  and  the  study  of  the  works  of  the 
mediaeval  composers  in  particular.  Yet  this  is 
the  most  effective  means  for  the  certain  attain- 
ment of  the  qualities  upon  which  good  chorus 
singing  depends,  and  should  be  cultivated  if 
for  no  other  purpose  than  that  of  raising  the 
standard  of  choral  technics.  The  prevailing 
tendency  in  musical  taste  is  distinctly  unfavour- 
able to  the  appreciation  of  choral  works  in  the 
polyphonic  style.  These  appeal  to  the  heart 
and  to  the  emotions  through  the  intellect. 
Their  beauty  and  grandeur  lie  largely  in  the 
consistency  and  symmetry  of  their  structure, 
which  can  be  comprehended  only  by  the  exer- 
cise of  musical  faculties  trained  to  look  beyond 

2XO 


Amateur  Choral  Culture  in  America 

nerve  excitation  for  the  content  of  a  compo- 
sition. Such  training  is  not  encouraged  by  the 
preponderance  of  descriptive,  picturesque,  and 
dramatic  music,  which  acts  more  directly  upon 
the  senses,  although  here,  too,  the  employment 
of  analytical  capability  can  prove  advantageous 
only,  while  to  the  acquirement  of  clear  judg- 
ment and  sound  taste  it  is  indispensable.  To 
form  the  habit  of  discriminate  listening  and  to 
assist  in  spreading  it,  are  the  loftiest  privileges 
and  duties  of  the  members  of  properly  con- 
ducted singing  societies.  With  understanding 
will  develop  love  for  the  highest  types  of  choral 
music,  and  with  love,  the  support  necessary  to 
the  existence  of  choral  institutions. 


211 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

CHORUS  singing  as  an  independent  art 
reached  its  culmination  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  mediaeval  professional  choirs  which 
devoted  themselves  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
unaccompanied  works  of  the  Palestrina  school. 
These  relied  for  their  proper  effect  on  beauty 
of  tone  quality,  absolute  purity  of  intonation, 
and  faultless  vocalisation.  As  soon  as  instru- 
mental music  encroached  on  the  domain  of  vo- 
cal music,  and  forcefulness  of  expression  became 
paramount  to  considerations  of  sensuous  beau- 
ty, composers  began  to  show  their  disregard 
for  the  nature  of  the  human  voice  by  assign- 
ing to  it  tone  progressions  foreign  to  its  idio- 
syncrasies, and  by  compelling  it  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  instrumental  vernacular.  Harsh  disso- 
nances took  the  place  of  mellow  consonances, 
for  the  production  of  which  the  human  voice  is 
fitted  as  no  other  tonal  medium,  while  the  in- 
strumental support,  as  it  helped  the  voices  to 
execute  unmelodic  tone  successions,  made  sing- 

212 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

ers  less  solicitous  of  the  beauty  of  quality, 
perfection  of  intonation,  and  delicacy  of  tone 
modulation  which  were  the  fundamental  re- 
quirements of  the  unaccompanied  polyphonic 
style. 

All  this  was  in  line  with  the  growing  demand 
for  emotional  power  and  dramatic  expression 
in  music.  The  time  for  looking  upon  sensuous 
beauty  as  the  one  indispensable  element  of 
music  had  passed,  and  with  it  the  time  for  cul- 
tivating chorus  singing  for  the  sake  of  its  own 
peculiar  tonal  charm.  The  subdivision  of  the 
chorus  into  a  large  number  of  independent 
voice  parts  for  the  purpose  of  having  at  hand 
many  strands  for  the  intricate  polyphonic  text- 
ure and  means  for  the  production  of  a  variety 
of  vocal  tone  colours,  fell  into  disuse,  and  in  its 
stead  the  more  compact  scheme  of  four  parts 
became  the  normal  one.  With  greater  sonor- 
ousness in  the  orchestral  accompaniment  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  vocal  tone  volume 
became  imperative,  and  this  called  for  larger 
numbers  of  choristers.  Under  the  influence  of 
dramatic  music  choral  forms  grew  up  unsuited 
to  the  ritual  of  the  Church,  and  with  these  the 
church  singers  could  concern  themselves  to  a 
limited  extent  only.  The  oratorio  in  partic- 
ular began  to  attract  attention  as  a  substitute 
for  the  all-absorbing  opera.  Thus  step  by  step 
213 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


chorus  singing,  which  for  centuries  had  been 
intrusted  to  professional  church  choristers 
only,  was  brought  within  the  scope  and  sphere 
of  amateur  activity,  and  one  of  the  most  effi- 
cient means  for  the  propagation  of  musical 
culture  was  placed  within  the  reach  of  the 
people. 

That  chorus  singing  as  an  art  suffered  there- 
by is  undeniable.  The  refinements  which  were 
the  common  property  of  mediaeval  choristers 
are  all  but  lost.  That  they  are  not  dominating 
factors  in  the  interpretation  of  modern  accom- 
panied and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  modern  un- 
accompanied choral  music,  does  not  alter  this 
fact.  Amateur  choral  culture,  however,  is  in  its 
infancy  as  yet,  and  the  time  may  come  when  it 
will  arrive  at  a  stage  of  development  which  will 
make  it  possible  to  revive  the  taste  for  so  pure 
and  lofty  a  style  of  unaccompanied  chorus  mu- 
sic as  is  that  of  the  mediaeval  church  composers* 
In  the  meanwhile  singing  societies  are  fulfilling 
a  high  mission  in  diffusing  love  for  music,  not 
only  by  providing  the  public  with  opportuni- 
ties for  becoming  acquainted  with  such  choral 
literature  as  they  can  undertake  to  perform,  but 
also  by  creating  in  their  members  that  sincere 
affection  for  a  dignified  type  of  music  which  is 
borne  of  the  thorough  knowledge  attainable 
only  by  unremitting  study. 

?J4 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

Were  the  benefits  to  be  derived  in  every 
direction  from  singing  in  a  properly  directed 
chorus  fully  appreciated,  the  organisation  of  ef- 
ficient amateur  societies  would  be  a  much  easier 
matter  than  it  is.  Instead  of  such  appreciation 
the  idea  is  prevalent  that  choral  practice  is 
harmful  in  many  ways.  The  following  remarks 
on  this  subject  by  Dr.  H.  Kretzschmar,  until 
very  recently  the  conductor  of  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  choirs  in  Germany,  the  Riedel  So- 
ciety of  Leipsic,  and  an  acknowledged  author- 
ity on  choral  culture,  are  to  the  point : — 

That  by  such  [amateur]  societies  harm  should  be  wrought 
to  the  art  of  singing,  that  with  them  artistically  perfect  results 
cannot  be  achieved,  only  those  can  assert  that  know  little 
about  the  matter.  Everything  depends  upon  the  question 
as  to  who  stands  at  the  head  and  how  the  rehearsals  are  con- 
ducted. Wherever  one  piece  after  the  other  is  disposed  of 
with  the  aid  of  piano  thumping,  singing  must  soon  come  to 
an  end.  The  training,  or  at  least  the  supervision  of  the  indi- 
vidual member  must  form  the  foundation  of  choral  activity, 
and  the  performance  and  study  of  accompanied  compositions 
must  constitute  only  half  of  the  work.  Constant  practice  in  a 
cappella  singing  is  indispensable.  It  is  this  that  trains  the  ear 
and  teaches  vocalisation  just  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than  the 
study  of  solos  in  which  half  the  faults  are  hidden  and  half 
the  trouble  saved  for  the  less  gifted  by  the  piano.  .  .  . 
A  choral  society  which  now  and  then  sings  a  few  movements 
by  Palestrina  or  a  fine  madrigal  will  give  a  more  beautiful 
performance  of  a  Handel  oratorio  than  one  whose  sense  for 
tone  has  not  been  independently  awakened, 
215 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


The  opinion  that  the  gifts  and  attainments 
necessary  to  an  efficient  chorus  singer  are  of  an 
inferior  kind  is  another  fallacy  commonly  enter- 
tained, particularly  by  those  who  aspire  to  rec- 
ognition of  their  individual  talents.  Yet  it  is 
none  the  less  true  that  there  is  the  widest  scope 
in  chorus  singing  for  the  exercise  of  the  highest 
musical  qualities.  A  member  of  a  choral  body, 
so  it  be  capable  of  artistic  work,  must  have  a 
good  voice,  properly  trained ;  an  ear  sensitive 
to  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  true  pitch ; 
keen  perceptiveness  of  rhythm ;  a  systemati- 
cally developed  faculty  for  reading  music;  and 
an  artistic  temperament.  He  must  be  self-reli- 
ant, but  not  self-assertive,  patient,  eager  to  learn, 
filled  with  love  for  his  task,  and  appreciative  of 
the  benefit  to  be  derived  for  musical  intelli- 
gence and  taste  from  the  concerted  practice  of  j 
the  works  of  the  great  choral  masters ;  for  no 
amount  of  individual  application  can  give  such 
insight  into  the  deeper  meaning  of  a  composi- 
tion as  does  the  earnest  participation  in  chorus 
rehearsals  in  which  every  phrase  of  a  compli- 
cated musical  structure  is  repeatedly  laid  bare 
before  the  work  is  presented  in  its  entirety  to 
the  spiritual  ear.  Part  of  a  grand  aggregate 
though  he  be,  the  singer  will  find  in  choral  ac- 
tivity ample  opportunity  not  only  to  make  use 
of  all  the  technical  resources  which  he  may  have 

2l6 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

acquired  by  years  of  study,  but  to  develop  them 
and  apply  them  to  a  higher  purpose  than  that 
of  mere  self-aggrandisement.  No  more  effective 
means  for  the  correction  of  vocal  vices  and  ab- 
errations of  taste  can  be  found  than  the  study 
of  dignified  choral  works  under  the  guidance  of 
a  competent  and  exacting  conductor. 

One  of  the  most  serious  rudimentary  short- 
comings of  amateur  choruses  consists  in  the 
lack  of  balance   between   the   different  parts. 
Due  generally  to  the  scarcity  of  voices  of  one 
or  another  class,  most  frequently  of  tenors,  its 
only  remedy  lies  in  taking  the  weakest  part  as 
j  the  basis  of  adjustment.    Were  this  more  stren- 
1  uously  carried  out,  amateur  singing  societies 
^  would  be  much  smaller  but  much  more  capable 
of  attaining  good  results  than  they  are  as  a  rule. 
Given  a  well-balanced  body  of  such  singers 
as  have   been   described,   it   remains    for   the 
conductor  to   secure   beauty   of   tone  quality 
throughout  all  gradations  of  force,  purity  of 
intonation,  accuracy  and  elasticity  of  rhythm, 
correct   phrasing,   clear   enunciation,   truthful 
expression,  and  characteristic  declamation. 

The  antiquity  of  the  office  of  the  chorus  con- 
ductor is  indicated  by  what  has  been  said  in  a 
former  chapter  regarding  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Roman  chorus  leaders.  In  the  Christian 
Church,  the  principal  arena  for  artistic  activity 
217 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


up  to  the  seventeenth  century,  the  need  of  a 
conductor  must  have  become  apparent  as  early 
as  the  fourth  century,  when  trained  choirs  were 
instituted.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  a  fixed  sys- 
tem of  leading  was  introduced  as  soon  as  de- 
tailed instructions  for  the  performance  of  the 
music  of  the  ritual  were  dictated  by  the  ec- 
clesiastical authorities.  These  instructions  pre- 
scribed not  only  the  melodies  for  all  the  services, 
but  the  precise  way  in  which  they  should  be  sung 
and  fitted  to  the  ceremonies.  In  order  to  accom- 
modate the  different  melodic  phrases  with  their 
dynamic  gradations  to  the  movements  of  the 
celebrants  at  the  altar,  it  was  necessary  to  ac- 
celerate or  retard  the  speed  with  the  utmost 
nicety,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  singers  could 
not  make  these  changes  without  the  ruling 
hand  of  a  conductor.  From  the  few  scattered 
references  to  the  subject  obtainable,  it  appears 
that  the  conductor  conveyed  his  intention  to 
the  singer  by  means  of  the  "  s61fa,'*  a  roll  of 
parchment  or  paper,  or  a  stick  of  wood,  with 
which  he  executed  motions  suggestive  of  the 
constantly  changing  rhythm  and  nuances  of 
the  chants — that  he  sketched  out  the  melody, 
as  it  were,  with  gestures  before  the  eyes  of  the 
choir — and  that  this  art  was  considered  very 
difficult  of  attainment.  After  the  introduction 
of  measured  music  the  method  which  is  known 

2X8 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

to  have  been  in  vogue  ever  since  the  fifteenth 
century  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  the  direct  de- 
scendant of  the  early  Roman  singing  school, 
was  probably  adopted.  It  consisted  in  the  con- 
ductor's beating  the  time  with  the  solfa  visibly 
to  the  choir  and  frequently  audibly  to  all  within 
hearing.  In  so  doing  he  indicated  the  units  of 
measurement  only  by  the  up  and  down  motion, 
just  as  the  Greek  coryphaei  had  done  two 
thousand  years  before,  Avith  whom,  however, 
the  up-beat,  which  now  represents  the  unac- 
cented unit,  represented  the  accented  one.  As 
the  music  was  not  divided  into  measures,  this 
method,  which  is  still  in  use  in  the  churches  of 
Italy  remaining  faithful  to  the  mediaeval  eccle- 
siastical style,  was  sufficiently  accurate. 

When  in  dramatic  music  the  harpsichord 
was  introduced  for  the  accompaniment  of  the 
"  dry  recitative  "  (the  recitative  supported  by 
detached  chords  only),  conductors  availed  them- 
selves of  that  instrument  on  account  of  its  soft 
but  crisp  tone,  to  control  their  forces,  resort- 
ing when  necessary  to  gestures.  This  custom 
found  its  way  into  the  churches  which  permit- 
ted accompanied  music.  At  concerts  on  an 
elaborate  scale  two  harpsichords  were  fre- 
quently  employed,  one  by  the  conductor  and 
the  other  by  the  accompanist.  Nevertheless 
the  s61fa  or  baton,  as  it  is  now  called,  re- 
219 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


mained  in  use,  while  in  France  the  habit  of 
marking  the  time  by  striking  the  floor  with  the 
end  of  a  cane  was  not  uncommon.  Samuel 
Pepys  (1633-1703),  the  entertaining  English  di- 
arist, relates  that  he  heard  music  at  the  Globe 
and  saw  "  the  simple  motion  that  is  there  of 
a  woman  with  a  rod  in  her  hand  keeping  time 
to  the  music  while  it  plays ;  which  is  simple 
methinks ; "  and  Dr.  Burney,  who  in  his  enthu- 
siasm over  the  Handel  Commemoration  took 
occasion  to  praise  everything  connected  with 
that  event,  even  the  tuning  of  the  orchestra, 
referred  to  the  absence  of  a  time-beating  con- 
ductor in  the  following  words  : 

Foreigners,  particularly  the  French,  must  be  much  as- 
tonished at  so  numerous  a  band  moving  in  exact  measure 
without  the  assistance  of  a  coryphcBus  to  beat  the  time  either 
with  a  roll  of  paper  or  a  noisy  baton  or  truncheon.  Lulli 
may  be  said  to  have  beat  himself  to  death  by  intemperate 
passion  in  marking  the  measure  to  an  ill-disciplined  band, 
for  in  regulating  with  his  cane  the  time  of  a  Te  Deum  in 
1686,  he  wounded  his  foot  by  accidentally  striking  on  that 
instead  of  the  floor ;  from  the  contusion  a  mortification  en- 
sued which  cost  him  his  life  at  the  age  of  fifty-four.  This 
commemoration  is  the  first  instance  of  any  band  at  all  nu- 
merous performing  in  a  similar  situation  without  the  assist- 
ance of  a  manuductdr. 

Choruses  as  now  constituted  and  prepared 
for  concerts  would  scarcely  be  equal  to  such 
an  undertaking.     Yet  how  much  is  to  be  ac- 
220 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

complished  by  faithful  study  was  shown  at  the 
performance  of  Bach's  B  minor  mass  at  Beth- 
lehem, already  mentioned,  which  was  directed, 
as  in  Bach's  days,  by  the  organist  from  the 
organ-bench.  None  the  less  the  present  meth- 
od of  accustoming  the  chorus  to  rely  implicitly 
on  the  conductor  by  paying  the  closest  pos- 
sible heed  to  his  every  gesture  and  signal  is 
unquestionably  the  one  which  can  be  made  to 
yield  the  best  results. 

The  view  is  all  too  prevalent  that  the  con- 
ductor of  amateur  singing  societies  need  not 
be  a  musician  of  such  high  endowments,  com- 
prehensive knowledge,  and  thorough  technical 
training  as  the  conductor  of  a  body  of  profes- 
sional performers  ;  yet  the  influence  of  the  for- 
mer for  good  or  evil  is  much  more  far-reaching 
than  that  of  the  latter.  Not  only  are  the  teach- 
ings of  the  chorus  conductor  more  widely  dis- 
seminated, but  they  are  more  unreservedly  ap- 
propriated and  more  perfectly  assimilated  be- 
cause amateurs  are  more  numerous  and  sus- 
ceptible and  are  compelled  by  the  very  nature 
of  choral  training  to  submit  to  these  teachings 
so  constantly  that  they  cannot  but  make  them 
their  own.  The  power  of  the  chorus  conduc- 
tor, therefore,  to  elevate  or  debase  musical  taste 
is  unlimited.  As  choral  music  embraces  a  great 
diversity  of  styles  and  types,  it  is  incumbent  on 

221 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


every  conductor  of  singing  societies,  however 
brilliant  his  gifts  may  be,  to  devote  the  most 
careful  and  conscientious  study  to  the  master 
works  of  all  periods  in  order  to  acquire  stand- 
ards of  judgment  which  are  in  accord  with 
recognised  art  canons  and  well-authenticated 
traditions.  Without  such  standards  it  is  im- 
possible to  arrive  at  the  correct  conception  of 
the  choral  music  of  the  mediaeval  masters  and 
even  of  Bach  and  his  contemporaries,  which  is 
not  at  all,  or  very  sparingly  provided  with  the 
clews  to  interpretation  now  liberally  supplied; 
nor  are  such  standards  unnecessary  to  the  full 
appreciation  of  the  modern  classic  and  roman- 
tic composers. 

In  respect  of  the  technique  of  training  sing- 
ers the  chorus  leader  must  be  well  equipped. 
He  must  possess  keen  musical  faculties,  thor- 
oughly developed;  exhaustive  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  conducting;  intimate 
familiarity  with  the  nature  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  human  voice,  and  with  the  effects 
peculiar  to  chorus  singing  and  to  the  combina- 
tion of  voices  and  instruments,  not  to  speak  of 
the  subtler  personal  gifts  and  accomplishments 
requisite  to  the  government  and  instruction  of 
singers  in  whom  loving  interest  in  their  work 
must  be  awakened  and  sustained. 

Among  the  many  perplexing  questions  which 

222 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

the  conductor  of  choral  societies  is  called  upon 
to  solve  is  that  of  the  interrelation  of  the  cho- 
rus and  the  orchestra.  In  works  of  the  modern 
school,  in  which  the  orchestra  is  used  not  only 
to  reinforce  the  chorus  but  as  an  independent 
means  of  illustration  and  expression,  frequently 
in  protracted  instrumental  movements,  a  body 
of  not  less  than  sixty  instrumentalists — the  num- 
ber necessary  to  the  full  symphony  orchestra 
so  its  constituent  elements  be  well  balanced — 
is  required.  It  remains  for  the  conductor  to 
adjust  the  tone  volume  of  such  an  orchestra  to 
that  of  his  chorus,  and  in  so  doing  he  must  be 
guided  by  his  appreciation  of  the  character  of 
the  work  to  be  performed,  and  by  his  concep- 
tion of  the  nature  of  its  several  movements, 
each  of  which  may  demand  a  different  treat- 
ment. The  increase  in  the  size  of  choirs  since 
choral  performances  have  been  taken  in  hand 
by  amateurs  has  not  been  accompanied  with  a 
corresponding  increase  in  tone  volume.  The 
\  numerical  relation  between  the  orchestral  and 
\  choral  forces  which  was  observed  when  cho- 
ruses were  made  up  of  professionals,  has  been 
reversed  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  greater 
sonority  of  modern  instrumentation  as  on  ac- 
count of  the  decline  in  the  effectiveness  of  cho- 
rus singing,  unavoidable  under  the  conditions 
which  as  yet  govern  amateur  activity.  In  il- 
223 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


lustration  of  the  comparative  effect  produced 
by  a  body  of  selected,  perfectly  trained,  and 
one  of  ordinary,  indifferently  trained  voices, 
it  may  be  stated  that  at  the  coronation  of  Na- 
poleon I.  in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
Paris,  the  singing  of  the  thirty-two  choristers 
of  the  Papal  chapel  created  a  more  profound 
impression  than  that  of  a  chorus  of  hundreds 
of  voices  accompanied  by  eighty  harps,  which 
had  been  gathered  together  for  the  occasion. 

In  the  opinion  of  Berlioz  modern  orchestra- 
tion does  not  necessitate  a  radical  readjustment 
of  the  numerical  relation  between  singers  and 
players  considered  normal  at  the  time  of  Bach 
and  Handel,  provided  the  former  be  as  capa- 
ble individually  and  collectively  as  the  latter. 
Berlioz,  whose  judgment  in  such  matters  can 
be  unreservedly  accepted,  held  that  to  a  hall  of 
the  size  of  that  of  the  Conservatoire,  which  con- 
tains, in  round  numbers,  one  thousand  seats,  an 
orchestra  of  one  hundred  and  nineteen  and  a 
chorus  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  would  be 
perfectly  adapted,  and  that  for  a  musical  festi- 
val in  an  acoustically  well-constructed  building, 
four  hundred  and  sixty-seven  instrumentalists 
and  three  hundred  and  sixty  chorus  singers,  in- 
cluding forty  boy  sopranos,  would  be  required, 
an  additional  chorus  of  boys*  voices  to  be  at 
hand  when  needed.  The  quality  of  the  chorus 
234 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

singers  he  had  in  mind  he  defined  by  adding 
that  great  difficulty  would  be  experienced  in 
collecting  in  Paris  such  a  number  of  voices  of 
any  excellence.  Berlioz's  Te  Deum  was  pro- 
duced in  the  church  of  St.  Eustache  in  1855  on 
about  the  scale  indicated  by  these  figures,  nine 
hundred  executants  participating.  The  model 
concerts  given  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire  en- 
listed during  the  past  year  the  co-operation  of 
an  orchestra  of  eighty-six  and  a  chorus  of  only 
seventy-four,  divided  into  nineteen  sopranos, 
eighteen  contraltos,  eighteen  tenors,  and  nine- 
teen basses.  On  the  other  hand,  at  the  con- 
certs of  the  Philharmonic  Chorus  of  Berlin,  one 
of  the  most  efficient  amateur  organisations  on 
the  Continent,  the  orchestra  during  the  past 
season  numbered  about  seventy  and  the  cho- 
rus four  hundred  and  three  :  one  hundred  and 
sixty-two  sopranos,  one  hundred  and  thirty-one 
contraltos,  forty-eight  tenors,  and  sixty-two 
basses ;  while  at  the  Cincinnati  Music  Festival 
of  1898  an  orchestra  of  one  hundred  and  nine 
was  associated  with  a  chorus  of  four  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  (not  including  a  choir  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  boys  required  for  the 
closing  number  of  Berlioz's  "  Damnation  of 
Faust"),  divided  into  one  hundred  and  forty- 
six  sopranos,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  con- 
traltos, fifty-seven  tenors,  and  one  hundred  and 
225 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


four  basses.  These  figures  show  how  remark- 
able are  the  numerical  discrepancies  to  which 
amateur  culture  has  given  rise  and  the  difficul- 
ties which  the  conductor  of  non-professional 
choruses  is  called  upon  to  meet  in  order  to 
bring  about  artistic  results. 

The  solution  of  the  problem  of  placing  the 
choir  and  orchestra  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable 
each  body  to  develop  its  full  power,  and  both 
bodies  in  conjunction  to  produce  a  homogene- 
ous tone  quality,  involves  the  careful   consid- 
f  eration  of  the  acoustic  properties  of  the  halls 
'  available,  most  of  which,  especially  in  this  coun- 
try, are  constructed  with  the  requirements  of 
•\  dramatic  representations  in  view  and  are  there- 
i  fore  ill  adapted  to  concert  performances.     Un- 
'  der  such  circumstances  the  conductor  will  re- 
sort to  the  devices  which  his  knowledge  and 
experience  may  suggest.     Under  normal  con- 
ditions the  seating  plan  usually  adopted  for  the 
chorus  consists  in  placing  the  singers  in  con- 
verging straight,  or  in  semi-circular  rows,  each 
row  being  sufficiently  elevated  above  the  one 
immediately  in  advance  to  permit  of  its  being 
in  unobstructed  view  of  the  conductor  and  the 
audience.     The  sopranos  are  generally  seated 
at  the  left  of  the  conductor,  with  the  tenors  be- 
hind them  and  the  altos  at  the  right,  with  the 
basses  in  the  rear.     Modifications  of  this  plan 

226 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

may  be  advisable  in  order  to  make  compensa- 
tion for  the  weakness  of  a  particular  part.  For 
the  purpose  of  assuring  a  more  perfect  amalga- 
mation of  the  different  voice  parts  Rubinstein 
advocated  the  subdivision  of  the  chorus  into 
two  sections,  each  one  complete  in  itself,  to  be 
placed  respectively  at  the  right  and  at  the  left 
of  the  conductor,  whether  the  composition  to 
be  performed  require  a  double  chorus  or  not. 
He  even  urged  a  similar  disposition  of  the 
strings  of  the  orchestra.  In  works  in  which 
the  orchestral  accompaniment  serves  principal- 
ly to  support  the  chorus  the  seating  plan  offers 
little  difficulty.  When,  however,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  modern  compositions,  all  the  tone  colours 
attainable  by  the  most  advanced  methods  of  in- 
strumentation are  to  be  brought  out  independ- 
ently of  the  vocal  part  as  well  as  in  connection 
with  it,  the  question  as  to  how  the  integrity  of 
the  instrumental  body  is  to  be  preserved  with- 
out sacrificing  that  of  the  vocal  one  is  not  so 
easily  determined.  When  the  chorus  is  small, 
and  so  well  trained  as  to  give  out  a  refined  and 
perfectly  homogeneous  tone  body,  it  can  be  ad- 
vantageously stationed  in  front  of  the  orchestra, 
the  seating  plan  of  which  remains  undisturbed. 
This  is  the  course  adopted  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire, the  sopranos  and  altos  being  placed 
at  the  left  and  the  tenors  and  basses  at  the  right 
227 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


of  the  conductor.  For  obvious  reasons  this 
plan  is  not  practicable  when  the  vocalists  out- 
number the  instrumentalists  four  or  five  to  one. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  is  customary  to 
place  the  orchestra  in  front  of  and  into  the  semi- 
circle formed  by  the  chorus,  or  to  extend  it  into 
the  chorus  ranks  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle  with 
its  apex  towards  the  conductor.  The  latter 
scheme,  which  is  observed  at  the  concerts  of  the 
Berlin  Philharmonic  Chorus,  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  diagram,  kindly  furnished  by  the 
conductor  of  that  society,  Prof.  Siegfried  Ochs: 


\     -  1      -     1   •   / 

.  \F^    •      -  /  . 

\  «  1                 -  /     ' 

r^' 

O                    \  G  \ 

W  ' 

A — Conductor. 
B — Soloists. 
C — Sopranos. 
D~Altos. 
E— Tenors. 
F — Basses. 
G— First  Violins. 


H — Second  Violins. 

I — ^Violas. 

K— 'Cellos. 

L — Double  Basses. 

M— Flutes. 

N— Oboes. 

O— Clarinets. 

228 


P — Bassoons. 
Q— Horns. 
R — Trumpets. 
S — Trombones. 
T— Kettle-drums. 


The  Chorus  and  the  Chorus  Conductor 

Unique  was  the  system  on  which  Verdi  ar- 
ranged his  forces  when  he  directed  a  perform- 
ance of  his  Requiem  at  Vienna.  He  placed  all 
the  executants  in  a  complete  circle  round  about 
him,  and,  it  is  said,  to  the  evident  advantage  of 
musical  effect. 

In  what  way  the  influences  emanating  from 
the  modern  lyric  drama,  which  are  making 
themselves  felt  in  every  sphere  of  musical  com- 
position, will  ultimately  affect  the  forms  of  cho- 
ral music,  the  methods  of  choral  writing,  and, 
in  consequence,  chorus  singing  itself,  it  is  im- 
possible to  forecast.  That  the  scope  of  choral 
technics  should  be  extended  in  various  direc- 
tions and  new  difficulties  be  presented  to  sing- 
ers is  inevitable.  In  the  meantime  choral  cult- 
ure, which  is  now  almost  exclusively  in  charge 
of  amateurs,  has  not  yet  outgrown  the  require- 
ments of  existing  choral  literature,  nor  has  musi- 
cal understanding  risen  above  its  appreciation. 
There  are  untold  treasures  of  chorus  music,  ac- 
companied and  unaccompanied,  of  which  sing- 
ing societies  are  as  ignorant  as  the  public.  It 
cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  to  study  and 
listen  to  the  performance  of  polyphonic  works 
of  the  highest  type  afford  the  surest  and  quick- 
est means  of  developing  musical  intelligence. 
Inability  to  realise  the  dignity  and  loftiness  of 
229 


Choirs  and  Choral  Music 


such  works  is  a  proof  of  narrowness  and  want 
of  discrimination,  not  an  evidence  of  advanced 
taste.  To  be  so  steeped  in  admiration  for  glow- 
ing tone  colour  as  to  be  incapable  of  enjoying 
the  beauty  of  structural  perfection  is  an  indica- 
tion of  unsound  taste.  He  who  has  learned  to 
understand  Bach  and  Handel  will  comprehend 
Wagner  much  more  fully  than  he  whose  hori- 
zon is  limited  by  Wagner  and  his  followers. 
Those  communities  which  have  supported  and 
continue  to  support  choral  societies  guided  by 
high  purposes  are  in  the  possession  of  the  most 
efficient  agencies  for  the  dissemination  of  gen- 
uine and  intelligent  love  for  music.  No  plea 
for  the  encouragement  and  promotion  of  choral 
culture  can  be  strong  enough. 


230 


INDEX 


Abellimenti^  66 

Academy  for  Ancient  Music, 
London,  124 

Academy  of  Ancient  Concerts, 
London,  183 

Academy  of  Science,  Royal, 
Berlin,  169 

A  Capella,  215 

Accompanied  movements  for 
solo  voices  in  the  English  an- 
them, 77 

Accompaniment,  instrumental,  4, 
17 ;  sung  by  early  Christians, 
22 ;  in  monastery  of  St.  Gall, 
35  ;  in  abbey  of  Reichenau,  35  ; 
in  English  church  music,  77  ;  in 
German  church  music,  85  ;  in 
the  mysteries,  94 ;  in  the  Pas- 
sions, 98  et  seq. 

"  Acis  and  Galatea,"  Handel's, 
124 

Acute  voices,  56 

Adjuvantes,  the,  87 

"Agnus  Dei  "  of  Beethoven's 
mass  in  D,  156 

Albert    of   Munich,    chapel    of, 

57 
Allegories,  the,  115,  117 
Allegri,  Miserere  by,  65 
AUeluja,  31 
Allott,  Rev.,  182 
Alto,  male,  55,  149,  179,  180 


Altus,  45,  56 

Alumni,  choruses  and  orchestras 
of  the,  85  et  seq.;  their  quali- 
fications, 85 ;  choruses  of,  in 
smaller  towns,  88  et  seq.;  their 
influence,  91 ;  their  decline, 
91 ;  their  technical  training, 
87  ;  their  influence  on  choral 
culture  in  Germany,  87 

Amateur  Association,  the  Bir- 
mingham, 180  et  seq. 

Amateur  choral  culture  in  Eng- 
land at  the  present  time,  184 

Amateur  choral  societies,  91 ; 
their  origin,  166  et  seq. ;  175  et 
seq.;  the  pioneer  in  America, 
186  et  seq.;  compared  with 
those  in  Germany,  192 ;  their 
standard,  193  et  seq.;  in  the 
West,  205 ;  in  Cincinnati,  205 
et  seq.;  their  educational  value, 
208  et  seq.;  difficulties  they  en- 
counter, 209;  their  influence  on 
chorus  singing,  214;  possibili- 
ties of,  214  ;  difficulty  of  organ- 
izing, 215 ;  their  proper  train- 
ing, 215  ;  German  in  America, 
207;  in  Germany,  173  et  seq.; 
in  England,  175  et  seq. 

Amateur  and  professional  choirs, 
their  relative  effectiveness,  223 
et  seq. 


231 


Index 


Amateur  musical  entertainments, 

162  et  seq. 
Amateur  orchestral  societies,  91 
Ambrose,  St,,  26  et  seq. 
"And  the  Glory  of  the  Lord," 

from  "  The  Messiah,"  126 
"Angels  ever  bright  and  fair," 

201 
Anglican  Church,  ritual  of  the, 

75 

Anthem,  the,  70  et  seq. ;  full 
(choral),  70;  accompanied 
(verse),  71,  77;  canticles  in  the 
form  of  the,  69 

Anthems,  Billings's,  193;  Chan- 
dos,  Handel's,  122 

Antiphonary,  Gregorian,  so 
called,  28  et  seq.;  of  St 
Gall,  32 

Antiphones,  22,  34 

Antiphony,  in  Hebrew  music,  5, 
9 ;  in  Greek  tragedy,  13 ;  in 
Christian  Church,  23,  24,  27; 
in  Julian  chapel,  65 

Apollo,  II ;  Hymn  to,  16 

Apollo  Club  of  Chicago,  307 

Archilochus,  16 

Aria,  accompanied,  the,  99; 
"Zoological,"  in  *' The  Cre- 
ation," 141 

Arians,  24 

Arias,  Handel's,  123 

Arion,  11 ;  the,  of  New  York, 
202 

Arioso,  accompanied,  the,  99, 
100 

Aristocracy,  Austrian  and  Bo- 
hemian, its  participation  in 
concerts,  163  et  seq. 

Arne,  Dr. ,  182  et  seq. 


Artificiality  in  composition,  reac- 
tion against,  59 

Ascension  mystery,  Bach's,  102 

Association  of  Musical  Artists, 
the,  of  Vienna,  162 

Assyrian  theories,  3 

Astorga,  158 

"Auditorium,"  first,  of  the  Berlin 
Singakademie,  170 

Augustine,  St. ,  27,  67 

Austria,  titled  classes  of,  164 

Avignon,  new  papal  choir  at,  63 

Avolio,  Sign.,  133 

Bach,  79,  86,  87,  88,  100,  loi, 
139,  154,  162,  230 ;  his  require- 
ments in  improvisation,  51  ; 
Philipp  Emanuel,  166;  choir, 
the,  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  207  et 
seq. 

Bacchus,  the  mysteries  of,  92 

Baif,  60 

"Ballate,"  59 

Bass  lute,  the,  118 

Bassus,  56 

Bates,  182 

Baton,  the,  219, 390 

Beethoven,  143,  155, 163 ;  in  Ber- 
lin, 170 

"Behold  the  Lamb  of  God," 
from  "The  Messiah,"  126 

Bells,  35 

Benedict,  Pope,  the  papal  chapel 
under,  63 

Benedictis,  Jacobus  de,  35 

Benevoli,  167 

Bergmann,  Carl,  198 

Berlin,  the  currendi  in,  83 ;  Phil- 
harmonic chorus  of,  225  ;  Sing- 
akademie of,  its  history,  166 ; 


232 


Index 


etseq.;  its  purpose,  168  et  seq.; 
its  plan  of  organization,  169 ; 
its  first  public  rehearsal,  170  ; 
its  first  public  concert,  171 ;  its 
growth,  172 ;  its  achievements, 
172,  192 

Berlioz,  157,  158,  159 

Berry,  Gerald  de,  68 

Bethlehem,  Penn. ,  221 

Billings,  190  et  seq. 

Birmingham  Amateur  Associa- 
tion, the,  xSo  //  seq. 

Blow,  76,  177 

Bohemia,  folk-music  of,  79  ;  the 
titled  classes  of,  164 

Bontempi,  119 

Boston,  choral  culture  in,  194 ;  In- 
dependent Musical  Society  of, 
the,  192 ;  Handel  and  Haydn 
Society  of,  the,  194  et  seq. 

Boy  altos  in  German  choirs,  174 ; 
choristers  excluded  from  papal 
chapel,  64 ;  in  English  chapels 
royal,  73  et  seq.;  in  cathedral 
choirs,  73  et  seq.;  their  skill 
in  acting,  73  et  seq.;  after  the 
Restoration,  75  etseq.;  as  com- 
posers,  76 

Boys'  voices,  46,  54,  56,  173 ;  in 
Hebrew  choruses,  6 ;  in  the 
Julian  chapel,  64 ;  in  Handel's 
choruses,  125;  in  English  choirs, 
i7Sf  176 ;  in  German  choirs, 
173;  at  the  Festivals  of  the 
Three  Choirs,  179;  at  the 
Birmingham    Festivals,    180 

Brahms,  157,  159 

Bremen,  152 

Britton,  176 

Brockes,  xox 


Brotherhoods  of  SL  Cecilia,  89 

"  Bundesfest,"  174 

Bumey,  Dr. ,  220 ;  on  the  curren- 

di,  84 
Byrd,  71 

"Cacce,"S9 

Caecilian  Society  of  London,  183 

Caesar,  18 

Cambridge,  University  of,  con- 
fers musical  degrees,  67 

Cannons,  121,  123,  124 

Canon,  origin  of  term,  53 

Cantata,  the  sacred,  77,  ixi ;  the 
dramatic,  X58 

Cantatas,  Carissimi's,  xix ; 
Bach's,  XII 

Canticles,  in  the  form  of  anthems, 
69  ;  sung  by  the  currendi,  84 

Canticum  vulgare^  78 

Cantor ey  of  Torgau,  the,  its  his- 
tory and  character,  89  et  seq. 

Cantoreyen^  the,  89 

Cantors,  88,  89 

Cantus,  56 

Cantusfirmus,  45 

Cantus  planus,  29 

Cantus  supra  librum,  51 

Carissimi,  xii,  118,  X19 

Catch,  the,  72,  75 

Cathedral  choir,  of  Berlin,  173  et 
seq.;  of  St  Thomas's,  Leipsic, 

173 

Cathedral  choirs,  in  England,  55; 
restoration  of,  75  et  seq.;  the 
nucleus  of  festival  choruses, 
X82 

Cathedral  music  in  England,  re- 
instatement of,  187 

Cavaliere,  Emilio  del,  1x7 


233 


Index 


Cecilia,  St.,  89 

Cecilia  Society  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  147 

Change  of  voice  among  the  cur- 
rendani,  86 

Chant,  Gregorian,  the,  29;  plain, 
29;  embellishments  in,  29;  ho- 
mophone, 33,  54;  in  England, 
77;  in  the  mysteries,  96;  in  the 
Passion,  97;  different  readings 
of,  97;  authoritative  version  of, 
97;  the  basis  of  the  mass,  52  ; 
the  harmonized  single  and 
double,  77 

Chants,  Hebrew,  9,  10;  among 
the  Christians,  23 

Chapel,  of  the  Duke  of  Chandos, 
121;  Papal,  the,  at  Paris,  224; 
vide  Sistine  Chapel 

Chapel  Royal,  organized  by 
Pepin,  46 

Chapels  Royal,  under  David  and 
Solomon,  7;  under  Nero,  18  et 
seq.  ;  English,  72  et  seq. ;  under 
Edward  IV. ,  72  et  seq.  ;  under 
Edward  VI.,  75;  their  singing, 
75;  after  the  Restoration,  76; 
choristers  of,  123,  124;  children 
of  the,  183 

Characteristic  expression  in 
choruses,  98,  99;  in  Mendels- 
sohn's "Elijah,"  149;  Chari- 
table Musical  Society  of  Dub- 
lin, 132 

Charles  II.,  his  influence  on 
church  music,  71,  75 ;  secular 
music  under,  72;  church  music 
under,  75  et  seq. 

Charles  IX. ,  a  tenor  singer,  60 

Chicago,  Apollo  Club  of,  207 


Choir,  Bach's,  108;  Handel's, 
132  et  seq. 

Choirs,  early  trained,  24 ;  monop- 
olize church  music,  25;  artistic 
work  of,  33;  character  of,  38, 
56  et  seq.;  of  men,  23;  of  wom- 
en, 23,  24  ;  of  discanters,  46  ; 
select,  54;  trained,  81;  vide  also 
chapels,  cathedral  choirs,  cur- 
rendi,  choral  societies  et  pas- 
sim 

Choragi,  14  et  seq. 

Choragic  monuments,  15 

Choral  ballad,  158 

Choral  concerts,  of  the  Musical 
Society  of  Dilettanti,  142;  Phili- 
dor's,  162;  Handel's,  123  et  seq., 
162  et  seq.  ;  of  the  Association 
of  Musical  Artists,  162 ;  of  the 
Berlin  Singakademie,  171 ;  in 
England,  162,  175  et  seq.;  in 
America,  192  et  seq.;  in  New 
England,  192  et  seq.;  at  the 
Chicago  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, 193;  in  Boston,  194  etseq.; 
in  Cincinnati,  205  et  seq.;  in 
New  York,  199  et  seq.;  in  Beth- 
lehem, Penn. ,  221 

Choral  culture,  its  influence  on 
musical  taste,  230 

Choral  forms,  pure,  developed 
by  the  church  composers,  20; 
new,  158  et  seq. ;  vide  also  the 
Anthem,  the  Passion,  the  Ora- 
torio, etc. 

Choral  literature,  the  existing, 
230 

Choral  music,  unaccompanied, 
neglected,  210;  its  diverse  types 
and  styles,  221  et  seq. 


234 


Index 


Choral  oratorio,  the,  121  et  seg. 

Choral  performances,  early,  60 

Choral  Society,  the  first,  organ- 
ized at  Prague,  79  ;  the  New 
York,  200 

Choral  songs,  Greek,  22 

Choral  style,  the,  of  Palestrina, 
61  et  seg.;  of  the  early  Passion 
composers,  97  et  seg.;  of  Bach, 
106 ;  of  the  early  oratorio  com- 
posers, 118  ;  of  Carissimi,  119 ; 
of  Handel,  120 ;  of  Haydn,  141 ; 
of  Mendelssohn,  146 ;  of  to- 
day, 160 

Chorale,  the  Protestant,  80;  the, 
in  the  Passion,  ggetseg.,  loi, 
102  ;  in  Bach's  Passions,  104  ; 
in  Mendelssohn's  St.  Paul,  147 ; 
in  the  cantata,  m 

Chorales,  first  collection  of  Ger- 
man, 81;  characteristic  features 
of,  81 

Chords,  38 

Chorister  schools,  32,  35,  37  et 
seg.;  46,  57  et  seg.,  63,  72  et 
seg.;  78  et  seg.;  81  et  seg. 

Chorus,  the,  in  Hebrew  music,  4 
etseg,;  in  the  Greek  drama, 
net  seg.;  its  organization  and 
training,  14  et  seg. ;  in  the 
Passion,  97  et  seg,  ;  in  the  sa- 
cred drama,  118,  in  Handel's 
oratorios,  121  et  seg.;  subdivi- 
sion of,  45,  56,  213 ;  the  Cin- 
cinnati Music  Festival,  206 

Chorus  and  orchestra,  Bach's, 
107  et  seg.  ;  their  interrelation 
109, 125  et  seg.;  135,  224  etseg.; 
Handel's,  125,  132  et  seg.; 
at  the  London  Handel  Com- 


memoration, 134  ;  at  a  Berlin 
"Messiah"  performance,  135; 
at  a  performance  of  Haydn's 
"Creation,"  142;  of  Mendels- 
sohn's "Elijah,  '  149;  of  Mo- 
zart's Requiem,  171 ;  at  a 
Cecilian  Festival  in  London, 
at  English  Festivals,  137,  180 
et  seg.  ;  at  the  first  concert  of 
the  Boston  Handel  and  Haydn 
Society,  196 ;  at  the  first  con- 
cert of  the  New  York  Choral 
Society,  200 ;  at  a  concert  of 
the  New  York  Sacred  Music 
Society,  201 ;  at  the  Cincinnati 
Festivals,  206,  225 ;  at  New 
York  Festivals,  210 ;  at  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  225 ;  at 
the  Berlin  Philharmonic  choral 
concerts,  225 

Chorus  conducting,  methods  of, 
among  the  Hebrews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  217 ;  among  the 
early  Christians,  218  et  seg. ; 
at  the  harpsichord,  219 ;  Dr. 
Bumey  on,  220;  at  the  organ, 
221 

Chorus  conductor,  the,  6, 13 ;  his- 
tory of,  217  et  seg.  ;  qualities 
and  attainments  necessary  to, 
221  et  seg.  ;  influence  of,  221 ; 
questions  confronting,  222  et 
seg. 

Chorus  musicus^  87  et  seg. 

Chorus  singers  in  London,  176; 
in  the  North  of  England,  177 ; 
their  quality  as  defined  by 
Berlioz,  224  ;  talent  and  attain- 
ments necessary  to,  216  et  seq. 

Chorus  singing,  of  the  mediaeval 


235 


Index 


choirs,  ai2;  influence  of  in- 
strumental music  on,  2x9  et 
seq.  ;  influence  of  the  dramatic 
tendency  on,  213  ;  taken  up  by- 
amateurs,  212  et  seq.;  in  Eng- 
land, 68,  175  et  seq.  ;  in  Ger- 
many, 162  et  seq.  ;  in  America, 
x86  et  seq.  ;  as  an  independent 
art,  161 ;  requisites  of,  217 ;  ben- 
efits to  be  derived  from,  217 ; 
without  a  time-beater,  220 

"Christ,"  Rubinstein's,  151  et 
seq.;  its  production  at  Bremen, 
152 ;  Liszt's,  153 

Choruses  of  Literati,  the,  79 

Christian  choral  music,  20;  in- 
fluenced by  pagan  music,  22; 
popular,  24 

Christian  Church,  the,  opposed 
to  instrumental  music,  20,  22 ; 
monopolizes  musical  art,  20, 25; 
in  Egypt,  23 ;  retards  musical 
progress,  26 

"  Christian  Church,  The,"  in  the 
Passion,  100 

Christian  mysteries,  the  early, 
93  et  seq. 

Christmas  mystery,  Bach's,  102 

Christmas  story,  representations 
of,  96 

Chromatic  melodies,  forbidden 
by  the  church,  24 

Chrysostom,  St,  24 

Church  choirs,  professional,  as 
artistic  institutions,  56;  their 
decline  in  efficiency,  82 ;  in 
Italy  and  South  Germany,  55 ; 
in  New  England,  188  et  seq.  ; 
Episcopal,  in  New  York,  200 
etseq. 


Church  composers,  mediaeval, 
the,  their  command  of  choral 
writing,  20;  trained  in  chor- 
isters' schools,  50  et  seq. 

Church  festivals,  in  Germany, 
78  ;  celebration  of,  96,  113 

Church,  Mr.,  133 

Cibber,  Mrs.,  133 

Cincinnati,  choral  culture  in, 
205 ;  Music  Festivals,  206,  225  ; 
Saengerfest  in,  205  et  seq. 

Clavicembalo,  118 

Clavichord,  the,  108,  125 

Clefs,  vocal,  56 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  24 

"  Club  Anthem,"  the,  76 

Collegia  musica,  their  origin 
and  history,  88  et  seq. 

Collegium  Musicum,  208 

Columbian  exposition,  at  Chi- 
cago, 193 

Composition,  musical,  its  dawn, 

49 
Concertantey  instrumental  groups, 

126 
Concerts,  in  Vienna,  164 ;  pub- 
lic, in  England,  176;  Lenten, 

Handel's,  125,  134 
Conducting,  Bach's  method  of, 

108 ;  Handel's  method  of,  125 
Conductors,  early,  of  the  Boston 

Handel  and  Haydn    Society, 

197 
Congregational  singing,  23,  25, 

95  ;  in  Germany,  80  et  seq. 
Congregatione  dell'  Oratorio ^  117 
Congreve,  177 

Conservatoire,  Paris,  224,  227 
Contrapuntal  riddles,  52;    their 

object  and  nature,  5a 


236 


Index 


Contrapuntal  types,  the,  in 
choral  music,  x6o 

Contrapunto  a  mente^  51 

Convivium  musicum,  90 

Cooke,  Captain,  76 

Copts,  the,  23 

Comets,  in  place  of  boy  sopra- 
nos, 76 ;  in  orchestra,  77 

Corporation  of  the  Sons  of 
Clergy,  the,  177 

Coryphaeus,  the,  13,  219,  220 

Costa,  Sir  Michael,  137 

Counterpoint,  practised  by  the 
Greeks,  17;  riddles  in,  29;  in 
England,  69;  as  an  art,  50; 
compared  with  discant,  50; 
mental  and  written,  51 ;  in  Ger- 
many, 79 ;  applied  to  German 
folk  melodies  and  spiritual 
songs,  80 ;  golden  era  of  vocal, 
62 

Counter-tenors,  55 ;  in  Handel's 
choruses,  125  ;  in  England,  149, 
182 ;  in  the  Boston  Handel  and 
Haydn  Society,  196 

••  Creation,  The,"  Haydn's,  139, 
140  ei  seg.  ;  orchestral  accom- 
paniments in,  140  et  seq.  ;  first 
performance  of,  140 ;  its  in- 
fluence on  choral  culture  in 
Germany,  142  et  seq.y  164, 
195 

Crystal  Palace,  Handel  Festivals 
at,  137 

Currendani,  the,  82  et  seq. ; 
Bach  one  of  the,  87  ;  choruses 
of,  9X  ;  their  influence  and  de- 
cline, 91 

Currendi,  the,  their  origin  and 
history,  83  et  seq. 


Curwen,  Rev. ,  43 
Cymbals,  35 


"  Damnation  of  Faust,"  Ber- 
lioz's, 225 

Damrosch,  Dr.  Leopold,  202  et 
seq.^  210 

"  Daughter  of  Zion,"in  the  Pas- 
sion, 100 

David,  music  under,  5  et  seq.  ; 
choirs  and  orchestra  under,  6 
et  seq. 

Deacons  of  the  Passion,  97, 
119 

Declamatory  style,  the,  117, 119  ; 
in  the  Passions,  99 

•'  Dies  Irae,"  sequence,  35,  156 

Dilettanti  associations,  162  et 
seq.  ;  concerts,  their  standard, 
165  ;  their  influence,  165 

Dionysus,  11 ;  Festivals  of,  13 ; 
the  mysteries  of,  92 

Dirges,  Greek,  xi 

Discant,  44  et  seq.  ;  confined  to 
men,  45  ;  in  four  parts,  46  ;  de- 
velopment of,  47;  leads  to 
musical  composition,  49 ;  com- 
pared with  counterpoint,  50; 
in  Germany,  79 

Discanters,  46 

Diskant^  45 

Do,  43 

Drama,  Greek,  the,  source  and 
history  ofi  wet  seq.;  chorus  in, 
xa  et  seq.  ;  religious  character 
of^  X3  etseq. ;  decadence  of,  X7 ; 
attempted  revival  of,  X17  ;  imi- 
tated by  Christian  hymnog- 
raphers,  93 


237 


Index 


Drama,    modern    lyric,  the,   its 

Eisenach,  Luther  at,  80 

influence  on  the  oratorio,   150 

Elgar,  E.  W.,  159 

et  seg. 

"Elijah,"    Mendelssohn's,    147; 

Drama,  religious,  the,  117 

history  of,  149 ;  first  perform- 

Dramatic cantata,  the,  158 

ance  of,  149  et  seg.;  revision  of. 

Dramatic  construction  of  early 

150 ;  dramatic  scenes  in,  147 

Christian  hymns,  93 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  68,  71,  75 

Dramatic  legend,  the.  158 

Embellishments,  in  Hebrew  mu- 

Dramatic methods,    Italian,   ap- 

sic, 10 ;  in  early  Christian  mu- 

plied to  the  Passion,  98  et  seg. 

sic,  23, 28  ;  traceable  to  neumes. 

Dramatic  scene,  the,  158 

30 

Dramatic  style,  the,  opposed  to 

"  Engedi,"  Beethoven's,  144 

polyphony,  62 

Enghsh  cathedral  service,  music 

Dramatization  of  gospel  stories, 

of,  69 

9^ 

English  church  style,  decadence 

*'  Dream  of  Gerontius,  The,"  159 

of,  71 

Dresden,  opera  chorus  at,  86, 174 

English  hymnody,  nucleus  of,  70 

Dryden,  178 

English  national  school  of  music, 

Dublin,  Handel's  "  Messiah  "  in, 

69 

131  et  seg. 

English  school  of  church  music. 

Dubourg,  132 

the  new,  76  et  seg. 

Duke  of  Chandos,  the,  121 

English  singers,  early,  67 

Dunstable,  69 

Ephraem  of  Edessa,  24 

Dusseldorf,  148 

Established  Church  in  England, 

Dutch  Reformed  Church,    the, 

its  ritual,  175 

in  New  York,  198 

Este,  at  Milan,  60 

DvoMk,  158,  159 

*•  Esther,"  Handel's,  121 ;  in  cos- 

tume and  action,  123, 124 ;  with 

Easter  mystery,  Bach's,  102 

scenery  only,  124 

Easter  story,  representations  of, 

Eudoxia,Empressof  Arcadius,  24 

96,  114 

Eugene    IV.,    Pope,     pontifical 

Eastern  (Greek)  Church,  22,  25 

chapel  under,  63 

Edward  IV.,  chapel  royal  under, 

Europe,  influence  of  peoples  of 

72 

northern  and  middle,  33,  35 

Edward  VI.,  chapel  royal  under. 

Evangelist,  the,  in  the  Passion, 

75 

97.  loi 

Egyptian  mysteries,  the,  92 

Extemporization,  36,37;    devel- 

Egyptian theories,  3 

opment  of,  46 ;   practised  side 

'*  Ein  feste   Burg,"  its  melody 

by  side  with  written  counter- 

not by  Luther,  80 

point,  51  et  seg. 

338 


Index 


Fa,  40,  42 

Fa-burden,  the  (fauxbourdon), 
in  England,  68 

Fa-la,  the,  59 

Falsetto,  singing  in,  introduced, 
55,  76,  109 ;  among  the  Ger- 
man choristers,  86 

Farsae,  115 

Fasch,  166  et  seq. ,  203. 

'^  Faust,"  Berlioz's,  159 

Festivals,  Birmingham,  149,  151, 
159,  179  ei  seq.;  their  history, 
180 ;  chorus  and  orchestra  at, 
x^etseq.;  their  standard,  181; 
choral,  in  England,  184  et  seq.; 
in  America,  209;  provincial 
musical,  in  England,  xj'jetseq.; 
Cecilian,  177  et  seq.;  Handel, 
136,  137.  185 ;  of  the  Three 
Choirs,  178  et  seq.;  their  his- 
tory, 178,  179;  their  influence, 
178  et  seq.;  Rhenish,  144,  147 ; 
music,  of  Cincinnati,  their  his- 
tory, 205  et  seq.;  their  record, 
206 ;  in  New  York,  210 ;  in 
Worcester,  209 

Fes  turn  Asinorum^  113 

Figurate  music,  85,  88 

Figured  Bass,  in  Bach's  works, 
no 

Finck,  79 

Fixed  Do  system,  39 

Flemish  choristers,  56, 57 

Flemish  composers,  56 

Fleureties,  in  discant,  44 

Florence,  the  opera  in,  117 

Flutes,  35,  118 

Folk  melodies,  in  discant,  47  ;  in 
Germany,  78,  80  ;  in  the  mira- 
cle plays,  114 


Folk  song,   the,  the  source    of 

rhythmic  design,  49 
Folk  songs,  as   the  basis  of  the 

mass,  52 
Foundling  Hospital  of  London, 

133 

Fourths  and  Fifths,  series  of,  36 

France,  home  of  discant,  44 ; 
choral  culture  in,  46 ;  singing 
schools  in,  46 

Franco  of  Cologne,  48 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  universi- 
ty of,  88 

Franklin  Society,  the,  192 

Franz,  no,  137 

Frederick  the  Great,  166 

Frederick  the  Wise,  81,  89 

Frederick  IV.  of  Prussia,  173 

••  Frottole,"  59 

Fugue  for  four  parts  out  of  one, 
S3  et  seq. 

"  Fuguing  style,'"  the,  191 

Fulda,  chorister  school  of,  78 

Galitzin,  Prince,  156 

Gallic  singers,  34 

Gamut,     Greek    vocal,    41 ;    of 

Guido,  41  et  seq. 
Gates,  123 
Geneva,   popular    tunes  among 

Protestants  at,  70 
George  II.,  coronation  of,   126, 

133 

German  church  music  after  the 
Reformation,  78  et  seq. 

German  polyphonic  church  com- 
posers, il  et  seq. 

Gesius,  98 

Gewandhaus  Orchestra  of  Leip- 
sic,  its  origin,  88 


239 


Index 


Gewandhaus  concerts,  the,  163 

Halifax,  182 

Gibbons,  71 

Hallelujah,  23 

Gibson,  Dr.,  124 

•'  Hallelujah,"  from  *'  The  Mes- 

Glee, the,  7a,  75 

siah,"  133 

Glee  clubs,  in  England,  55 

Handel,  77,  loi,  120  et  seq.,  158, 

Gloucester,  178 

162.  183,  230 ;  a  dramatist,  122 

Glover,  Miss,  43 

etseq.;  compelled  to  turn  to 

Gluck,  139 

the  oratorio,  122  et  seq.;  re- 

" Good  Samaritan,  The,"  115 

nounces    operatic     undertak- 

Gossec, 156  et  seq. 

ings,  125 ;  composes  oratorios 

Gounod,  151 

in    rapid    succession,    126   et 

Grave  voices,  56 

seq.;  his  influence  on  Haydn, 

Greek  choral  music,  3 ;  compared 

141 

with  Hebrew  choral  music,  10 ; 

Handel  Commemoration  at  Lon- 

character and  system  of,  11 ; 

don,  the,  134  et  seq.  ;   182,  220 

forms  of,  II ;  among  the  peo- 

Handel   cult,   the,  in    England, 

ple,   IS  et  seq.;   rhythm    and 

134,  182  et  seq. 

melody  of,  16  et  seq.  ;  unison- 

Handel and  Haydn  Society,  The, 

ous  and  accompanied,  17  ;  de- 

of   Boston,   its    history,    194; 

cadence  of,  17 ;  influence    on 

its  first  concert,  195 

Christian  choral  music,  18 ;  in 

Handel  and  Haydn  Society,The, 

Rome,  18 

of  New  York,  200 

Greek  mysteries,  the,  92 

Hanslick,  165 

Gregorian  chant,  modern  nota- 

Harmonic design.  120 

tion  of,  48 

Harmony,  invention  of,  35  etseq.; 

Gregorian  chants,  47 ;  rhythm  of 

early  conception  of,  38;    sen- 

governed by  prosody,  48 

suous  beauty  of,  59 

Gregorian  song,  introduction  into 

Harp,  125 

England,  67 

Haydn,  139  et  seq.,  154, 158, 163  ; 

Gregory  the  Great,  28  et  seq. 

his  last  public  appearance,  142 ; 

Gregory  II.,  28 

member  of  St.  Stephen's  choir, 

Gregory  III.,  28 

55 

Gregory  XI.,  his  return  to  Rome, 

Haydn  Society,  The,  of  Cincin- 

63 

nati,  205 

Gregory  XIII. ,  117 

Haydn's  imitators,  143 

Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  93  et  seq. 

Hebrew  choral  music,  origin  and 

Gruppetti,  32 

history,  3  et  seq. ;  factors  em- 

Guidiccioni, Laura,  117 

ployed  in,  4  et  seq.  ;  antipho- 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  39  et  seq.  ;  his 

nal,  5 ;  nature  and  character 

system  of  teaching,  40  et  seq. 

of,  5  et  seq.;    decline  of,   8; 

240 


Index 


preserved  by  oral  tradition,  9 ; 
influence  of,  on  Christian  mu- 
sic, 9,  22  et  seq.  ;  system  of,  9  et 
seq.;  in  modem  synagogues  10; 
compared  with  Greek  choral 
music,  lo  et  seq. 

Heilbronn,  163 

Henry  VIII.,  secular  music 
under,  71;  chapel  royal  under, 
75 

Heptachord,  42  et  seq. 

Herefoxd,  178 

Herschel,  Sir  William,  182 

"  He  was  Despised,"  from  "  The 
Messiah,"  133 

Hexachord,  42 

Hiller,  Ferdinand,  202 

Hffler,  J.  A.,  135 

Hisioricus,  119 

Holidays  in  Protestant  Germany, 
95 

Holy  Trinity,  typified  in  triple 
metre,  48 

"HoraNovissima,"  Parker's,  179 

Horn,  Charles  E.,  197 

Hucbald,  38 

Hudson,  Dr. ,  144 

Hullah,  Dr. ,  183  et  seq. 

Humphrey,  76 

Hunold,  100 

Hymn  tunes,  early  collections 
for  four  voices,  70 

Hymns,  English,  69;  Gre- 
gorian, 29,  34;  Hebrew,  9; 
Greek,  11,  22 ;  early  Christian, 
23  et  seq. ;  Greek,  translated 
into  Latin,  27;  Latin,  trans- 
lated into  German,  78,  80  ;  of 
the  early  Christian  Church,  93  ; 
of  Romanus,  94 


Iambic  Metre,  in  Latin  hymns, 
27 

Iambics,  16 

Idiosyncrasies,  influence  of  na- 
tional, 33  et  seq.,  35 

Imperial  chapel  at  Vienna,  65  et 
seq. 

Improvisation,  51 ;  Mozart's  skill 
in,  51 ;  Mendelssohn's  skill  in, 
51 ;  Bach's  requirements  in,  51 

Indian  mysteries,  the,  92 

"Inspruck  ich  muss  dich  lassen," 

79 

Instrumental  music,  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  people,  20 ;  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Church  in  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany, 
35;  encroaching  on  vocal 
music,  63 ;  modern,  its  effect 
on  choral  writing  and  chorus 
singing,  160;  in  the  churches 
of  New  England,  188  et  seq. 

Instrumentation,  Bach's,  109 ; 
Handel's,   126 ;   Haydn's,   141 

Intermexxi,  in  the  Greek  drama, 

13 

Interrelation  of  chorus  and  or- 
chestra, 109,  125  et  seq.  ;  135, 
137,  223  et  seq.  ;  Berlioz's  es- 
timate of,  224  et  seq.  ;  in  Bach's 
and  Handel's  days,  224 ;  at  the 
present  time,  225 

Intervals,  measurement  of,  17 

Isaak,  79 

"Israel  in  Egypt,''  Handel's,  127, 
X28 ;  epic  form  of,  X29 ;  dra- 
matic conception  of,  129  et 
seq. ;  history  of,  129  et  seq. 

Italian  oratorios.  Handel's,  121 

Italian  vocal  methods,  120 


241 


Index 


JENNENS,  131,  132 

Lidley,  140 

John  XIX.,  Pope,  42 

"  Liedertafel,"  174 

Josephus,  7  et  seq. 

"Lift  thine  eyes,"   from   "Eli- 

Jubilate, Handel's,  122 

jah,"  150 

"  Judgment  of  the  World,  The," 

Liszt,  151 

Schneider's,  144 

Liturgical  forms,  their  dramatic 

*•  Judith,"  Dr.  Arne's,  183 

possibilities,  95 

Julian  chapel,  64 ;  singing  of,  ac- 

Liturgical mysteries,  the,  95 

companied  by  instruments,  65 

Liturgy,  Latin,  31 

Julius  II.,  Pope,  64 

Lock  Hospital  Society,  the,  192 

Louis  Ferdinand,  Prince,  170 

Keiser,  100 

LuUi,  220 

Komer,  174 

Lflneburg,  87 

Krehbiel,  H.  E.,  203 

Luther,  69,  80,  8i  et  seq.,  89,  98 

Kretzschmar,  Dr.  H.,  215 

Lyre,   Greek,   the,  22 ;   double, 

Kythara,  22 

the, 118 

Lyric  forms,  the,  in  the  Passions, 

La,  40 

99 

Lamentations,  Greek,  11 

Lyric  scene,  the,  158 

Lancashire,  chorus  singers  from. 

Lysicrates,  choragic   monument 

176 

of,  15 

Laodicea,  council  of,  25 

Lasso,    Orlando    di,     choir    of, 

Madrigal,  the,  in  England,  71 

57  ft  seq. 

et  seq. 

'*  Last  Judgment,  The,"  Spohr's, 

Madrigals,  59 ;  singing  of,  60 

144 

Magdeburg,  Luther  at,  80 

Last  Supper,  the  celebration  of, 

Magnificat,  Bach's,  158 

23 

Mattrises,  46 

Latin,  in  church  music  of  Ger- 

Male altos,  55,  149  ;  at  the  Festi- 

many, 78 

vals  of  the  Three  Choirs,  179 ; 

Latin  schools,  choirs  in  the,  85 

at  the  Birmingham  Festivals, 

Laudi  spirituali,  116 

180 

Laudisti,  116 

Male  choruses,  in  Germany,  174 

Leading  melody  of  hymns  in  the 

et  seq.;  American,  208 

highest  part,  81 

Malibran,  201 

"  Legend  of  St.  Elizabeth,  The," 

Mansfeld,  Luther  at,  80 

Liszt's,  152  et  seq. 

Manuductor,  the,  13,  220 

Leo  X. ,  chapel  of,  60 

Marbeck,  his  Book  of  Common 

Leopold,  Emperor,  his  choir,  66 

Prayer,  69 

Levites,  6,  8 

Marx,  Professor,  147 

242 


Index 


Mason,  Dr.  Lowell,  197 

Mass,  the,  154  et  seq. 

Masses,  Bach's,  in  B  minor,  154, 
Tiorjetseq.;  Haydn's  and  Mo- 
zart's, x^^etseq.;  Beethoven's, 
in  D,  15s  et  seq. 

Massachusetts  Musical  Society, 
the,  192 

Measured  music,  48  et  seq.;  met- 
rical system  of,  53 

Mediaeval  composers,  29 

Medici,  at  Florence,  60 

Medius,  45 

Melodic  style,  the,  in  the  sacred 
drama,  117 

Melodic  turns,  conventional,  45 
et  seq. 

Melodrama,  Greek,  12 

Melody,  independence  of,  dem- 
onstrated, 34 

Members  of  singing  societies, 
associate,  89 

Men's  voices,  in  Hebrew  chor- 
uses, 4,  7;  in  Greek  choruses, 
13 ;  in  the  early  Christian 
Church,  45 ;  in  select  choirs, 
54  ;  vide  falsetto  singing,  coun- 
ter-tenors, and  male  altos 

Mendelssohn,  98,  182,  145  et  seq.; 
compared  with  Bach  and 
Handel,  145 ;  his  style,  145 ; 
his  mastery  of  choral  forms, 
146  et  seq.  ;  overrated,  146 ; 
underrated,  146 ;  his  skill  in 
improvisation,  51 ;  his  influence 
in  England,  151 

Mendelssohn,  Fanny,  148 

"  Messiah,  The,"  Handel's,  127, 
128, 140, 180, 182,  196, 201,  209 ; 
epic  form    of,   129 ;    dramatic 


conception  of,  129  et  seq.  ; 
analysis  of,  130;  history  of, 
131 ;  first  performance  of,  131 
et  seq.  ;  in  London,  133  ;  per- 
formances of,  during  Handel's 
lifetime,  133;  popularity  of, 
134  ;  at  Berlin,  135  et  seq.  ;  at- 
tempts to  modernize,  135  et 
seq.  ;  in  Boston,  196 ;  in  New 
York,  199 ;  attractive  power  of, 
208  et  seq. 

Metre,  duple  and  triple  in  the 
twelfth  century,  48  ;  intricacies 
of,  53 

Metrical  construction  of  German 
chorales,  81 

Mi,  40,  42 

Michael  Angelo,  64 

Milow,  167 

Miracle  plays,  the,  78, 114 ;  their 
deterioration,  115  et  seq. 

Modern  music,  source  of,  20 

Modes,  Greek,  27 ;  authentic, 
27 ;  plagal,  28  ;  ecclesiastical, 
42,  62 

Monastic  schools,  32 ;  in  Eng- 
land, 67 ;  in  Germany,  83 ; 
dramatic  performances  in,  114 

Moralities,  the,  96,  115 

Moravians,  the,  208 

Mos  palatinuSy  59 

Moses,  Song  of  Moses  and  Mir- 
iam, 4  et  seq. 

*'  Moses's  Song,"  Handel's,  129 

"  Moses,"  Rubinstein's,  151 

Motet,  the,  52 

Motets,  hymn  texts  treated  in 
the  form  of,  70 ;  Bach's,  no 
et  seq. 

Motetus^  45 


243 


Index 


"  Mount  of  Olives,  The,"  Bee- 
thoven's, 143  et  seq.  ;  its  incon- 
gruities, 143  et  seq.  ;  its  first 
performance,  142 ;  under  the 
name  Engedi,  144  ;  ' '  Hallelu- 
jah "  from,  200  et  seq. 

Movable  Do  system,  39 ;  in  use 
in  America,  43 

Mozart,  37,  65,  139,  154,  163  ;  his 
additional  accompaniments  to 
some  of  Handel's  works,  136  ; 
his  skill  in  improvisation,  51 

Musica  ficta,  65 

Musica  mensurata,  48 

Musica  plana,  48 

Musical  Society  of  Dilettanit, 
The,  of  Vienna,  142 

Musical  Society  of  London,  The, 
177 

Musici,  58 

Musicians,  foreign,  in  America, 
197 

Mutation,  rules  of,  42 

Mysteries,  Bach's,  102  ;  popular, 
113 ;  liturgical,  116 

Mystery,  the,  92  et  seq.  ;  its  pro- 
totypes, 92 ;  mediaeval,  the,  and 
the  Passion,  102 


Napoleon  I. ,  coronation  of,  224 
Narrator,  the,  119;  in  Handel's 

•'  Israel  in  Egypt,"  128 
Neri,  116  et  seq. 
Nero,  jS  et  seq. 
Netherland  choristers  and  chapel 

masters,  57 
Netherlands,     development     of 

contrapuntal  technics  in  the, 

SO 


Neumes,  29  et  seq.,  33 ;  on  stave, 
39 ;  changed  into  notes,  48 

New  Church,  the,  at  Leipsic, 
performances  in,  88 

New  paths  in  oratorio  composi- 
tion, 153 

Newman,  Cardinal,  159 

Nobility,  its  participation  in  con- 
certs, 163 

Nomes,  Greek,  22 

Norfolk  Society,  the,  192 

Notation,  indefiniteness  of  early, 
20;  Greek  system  disappears, 
26  ;  by  means  of  letters,  28  et 
seq.;  by  means  of  neumes,  29  ; 
example  of,  31 ;  modern  sys- 
tem of,  30 ;  of  Gregorian  music, 
30 ;  of  measured  music,  48  ; 
its  object,  49  ;  its  intricacy,  49, 
51  et  seq.;  the  basis  of  modem, 
49 ;  Hucbald's  systems  of,  38 
et  seq.;  discovery  of  principle 
of  modern,  39 

Notes,  chorale,  48 

"Notes  on  Choral  Music," 
Krehbiel's,  203 

Notker  Balbulus,  34,  78 

"Occasional  Oratorio,"  Han- 
del's, 127 

Ochs,  Siegfried,  Professor,  228 

Ode,  choral,  the,  77 

Ohrdruf,  87 

Olympic  games,  93 

Opera,  the,  its  source,  96 ;  and 
oratorio,  118  et  seq.,  121 

Opera  oratorio,  121 ;  the  ItaKan 
in  Germany,  139 

Opera  singers,  Italian,  56 

Operas,  Handel's,  120  */  seq. 


244 


Index 


Operatic  music,  French,  its  in- 
fluence on  English  church 
music,  77 

Operatic  style,  the  Italian,  its  in- 
fluence on  choral  music,  91 

Oratorio,  the,  78, 113  et  seq.,  213; 
its  source,  93,  96 ;  the  term, 
116 

Oratorio  concerts,  Lenten,  Han- 
del's, 125  et  seq. 

Oratorio  performances,  Lenten, 
183 ;  in  Boston,  196 ;  in  New 
York,  20I 

Oratorio  Society, The  New  York, 
its  history,  201  et  seq. ;  its 
first  concert,  203  ;  its  first  ora- 
torio performance,  204 

Oratorios,  Handel's,  composed 
for  the  concert-room,  127 ; 
choice  of  subject-matter  for, 
127  et  seq.  ;  dramatic,  128 ; 
works  to  be  performed  after 
the  manner  of  oratorios,  127 ; 
in  Vienna,  164 

Oratorios,  dismembered,  183 ; 
descriptive  and  illustrative  in 
Germany,  143 

••  Oratorios,"  miscellaneous  con- 
certs, 162 

Orchestra,  Handel's,  125,  132, 
133  et  seq. 

Orchestral  accompaniment,  118; 
in  the  Passion,  99  et  seq. 

Orchestration,  Bach's,  109  et 
seq.  ;  Handel's,  126  ;  Haydn's, 
141 

Organ,  the,  35,  36,  100,  125  ;  in 
Bach's  vocal  works,  109 ;  in 
Bach's  Passions,  106  ;  the  first, 
in  Boston,  189 


Organizers,  36,  38,  44 

"  Organum,"  the,  discovery  of, 
36 ;  manner  of  singing,  36  et 
seq.  ;  types  of,  37  ;  develop- 
ment of,  38 ;  formulation  of 
laws  of,  38 ;  first  treatise  on, 
38  ;  character  of,  38 

Ornaments,  in  discant,  44 

Orthodox,  the,  24 

Oseander,  Dr.  Lucas,  81 

Osiris,  the  mysteries  of,  92 

Oxford  High  School,  chair  of 
music  in,  67 

P^ANS,  Greek,  11 

Pagan  celebrations  imitated  by 
Christians,  95 

Palestrina,  7,  57,  65,  117,  60  et 
seq. ;  his  style,  61  et  seq. ; 
proper  performance  of  his 
music,  65  et  seq.  ;  chromatic 
signs  in  his  music,  65 

Palestrina  and  Bach,  112 

Pantheon,  at  Rome,  21 

Papal  chapel,  history  of,  63  et 
seq. 

*'  Paradise  and  the  Peri,"  Schu- 
mann's, 159 

"  Paradise  Lost,"  Milton's,  140; 
Rubinstein's,  151 

Parker,  Horatio  W.,  179 

Passion,  the,  92 ;  of  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen,  93  et  seq. ;  of 
Bach,  95  ;  celebration  of,  by  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  96  et  seq.  ;  in 
Germany,  98 ;  treated  as  an 
opera,  100 ;  Bach's  conception 
of,  102;  and  the  oratorio,  100, 
104 

Passion,  chorale,  the,  98, 100,  X03 


345 


Index 


Passion,  motet,  the,  98 

Polyphonic  choral  music,  its  in- 

Passion, oratorio,  the,  100 

fluence,  210,  230 

Passion  plays,  in  England,  114  ; 

Polyphonic    style,    the,    119    et 

in  France,   114 ;    in  Oberam- 

seq.  ;  in  the  oratorio,  153 

mergau,  114  et  seq. 

Pontifical  chapel,  63 ;   vide  also 

Passion  story,  the,  114 

papal     chapel      and     Sistine 

•*  Passion  Story  of  the  Bleeding 

Chapel 

and  Dying  Christ,"  Hunold's, 

Poor  scholars,  82,  86 

zoo 

Popular  songs,  singing  of,  60 

Passion  trilogy,  Perosi's,  153 

Popular  mysteries,  the,  96 

Passions,  Schutz's,  98;  Walther's, 

Porta  Angelica,  33 

98  ;    Sebastiani's,  99  et  seq.  ; 

"  Positive,  "  the,  100 

Reiser's,  100 ;   Handel's,  loi ; 

Potsdam,    royal    choristers    at. 

Bach's,  loi  et  seq. 

167 

Peace  Jubilee  at  Boston,  194  et 

Precentors,   Hebrew,  6;    Chris- 

seq. 

tian,  23 

Pedicularius^  13 

"  Prodigal  Son,  The,"  115 

Pepys,  220 

Professional  choirs  in  England, 

Pergolesi,  158 

175  et  seq. 

Perkins,  192,  197 

Proses,  34 

Perosi,  Don  Lorenzo,  64  et  seq.^ 

Protestant  Church  in  Germany, 

153 

its  ritual,  175 

Pevemage,  Andreas,  60 

Psalm  tune  composers,  the,  190 

Philharmonic    Society    of    New 

Psalm  tune  teachers,  the,  189  et 

York,  198 

seq.;    their    accomplishments, 

Philidor,  Danican,  162 

193 

Philip  IV.,  46 

Psalms,   metrical    transcriptions 

Philo,  22 

of,  69 ;  chanted  in  English,  69 

Pictures,  living,  with  the  gospel 

Psaltery,  6,  35 

narrative,  95 

Purcell,  Henry,  76, 77,  122,  177 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  their  hatred  of 

Puritans,  the,  in  New  England, 

musical  culture,  186  et  seq. 

187 

Pitch-pipe,  the,  189 

Plain  song  melodies  adapted  to 

English  words,  69 
*•  Pneumae,"  23,  28 

QUADRUPLUM*  45 

Queen's  Chapel  in  Boston,  189 

Poem,  choral,  the,  158 

Polyphonic   choral  forms   intro- 

Radcliffe, Miss,  178 

duced   into  the    concert-room 

"Raphael,"  aria   of,    in    "The 

by  Handel,  127 

Creation,"  141 

246 


Index 


Ratisbon,  chorister  school  of,  78 

Ripieni^     instrumental     groups. 

Ravenscroft,     his     volume     of 

126 

hymns,  70  ;  their  character,  70 

Ritter,   Dr.  Frederic  Louis,   199 

Re,  40,  42 

Roman  choristers  in  England,  67 

Recitative,   the,  in  the   Passion, 

Roman  mysteries,  the,  92 

100  ;     unaccompanied,     108  ; 

Roman  pantomimes,  93 

Handel's,  122 

Romantic  movement,  the,  its  in- 

Rectores chori,  89 

fluence  on  the  oratorio,  144 

•'  Redemption,  The,"  Gounod's, 

Romanus,  94 

151 

Rome,  the  oratorio  in,  117 

Reformation,  the,  in  England,  69; 

Rosingrave,  Mr.,  133 

influence  of,  on  German  music, 

Rossini,  158 

80 

Round,  the,  72 

Reforms,  musical  and  liturgical, 

Roundheads,  their  war  on  music, 

not  due  to  Gregory,  28 

75 

Reichardt,  166 

Rubinstein,  151  et  seq.,  227 

Reichenau,  Abbey,  band  of,  35 

Rue,  Pierre  de  la,  53 

Reinstrumentation  of    Handel's 

"Rule,  Britannia,"  183 

works,  135  et  seq. 

Rupf,  80 

Renaissance,    its    influence    on 

music,  76 

Sackbut,  the,  77 

••  Representation  of  the  Soul  and 

Sacred  Harmonic  Society  of  Lon- 

the   Body,"    Cavaliere's,    117 

don,  the,  137,  176  et  seq. ,  183 

et  seq. 

Sacred  Music  Society,  the  New 

Requiem,  the,  156 

York,  200,  201 

Requiems,   Mozart's,    154,    171; 

Sacred  operas,   the,   of   Rubin- 

Brahms's,  157;   Verdi's,   157; 

stein,  151  et  seq. 

Berlioz's,  157 

Sacred  Singing  School,  the,  at 

Restoration,  the,  hymns  after,  70; 

Stoughton,  Mass.,  192 

cathedral  chorus  after,  75 

"Sacrifice    of   Abraham,  The," 

"  Return  of  Tobias,  The,"  Hay- 

"5 

dn's,  139 

Salamonis,  Elias,  sSetseq. 

Rhythm,  120 ;  of  early  Christian 

Salem  Society,  the,  192 

hymns,  27 ;  of  chorales,  8i 

Salieri,  142 

Rhythmic  design,  not  introduced 

"Samson,"  Handel's,  204 

by  measured  music,   49;  due 

"  Sangerfest,"    174;    in    Cincin- 

to the  folksong,  49 

nati,  205 

Richter,  Hans,  181 

San  Girolamo,   oratorio  of   the 

Riedel  Society  of  Leipsic,  the. 

monastery,  116 

ai5 

*'  Saul,"  Handel's,  129 

247 


Index 


Scale,  the  vocal,  extended,  55 

Sequences,    the,    origin   of,  23, 

Scarlatti,  119  et  seq. 

33  et  seq. ;    influence  of,   34 ; 

Scenic  representations  of  gospel 

now  recognized,  34 

stories,  96,  113 

"Seven  Last  Words  of  Christ, 

Scenery     in    Handel's    oratorio 

The,"  Schutz's,  98 

performances,  124  et  seq. 

Sforza,  at  Mantua,  60 

"Scenes    from     Faust,"    Schu- 

•Sty 43 

mann's,  159 

Singing  in  the  churches  of  New 

Schindler,  155 

England,     187 ;     the    "  usual 

Schneider,  Frederic,  144 

way''  of,    187;    the   ''new  or 

ScholtB  cantorum,  32  ;  curriculum 

rulable  way  "  of,  187  et  seq. 

of,  32  et  seq. 

Singing  schools,  Levitic,4  ;  early 

ScholcR  palatinct,  59 

Christian,  25  ;  development  of, 

School  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Dres- 

26;  influence  of,  27 ;  reorgan- 

den, 86 

ized,  28,  38 ;  in  New  England, 

Schools,  monastic,  32,  67,  83,  X14 

188 

Schutz,  98 

Singing  societies,   amateur,    25, 

Schumann,  159 

91 ;  in  Germany,   161-173 ;   in 

Schwind,  Moritz  von,  152 

England,  175-185;    in  Amer- 

Scipio Damianus,  83 

ica,  186-211 

Scriptural  text,  the,  in  the  Pas- 

Sistine Chapel,  the,  origin  of,  25  ; 

sions,  99,  102 

permanently    established,   28 ; 

Seating  plan  of  the  chorus,  226 

the  court  of   last  resort,  31 ; 

etseq.;  Rubinstein's,  226 

practically     disbanded,      6^ ; 

Seating  plan  of  the  chorus  and 

added  to  Vatican,   64;    sing- 

orchestra,  226  et  seq.;  of  the 

ing  of,  65 

Paris    Conservatoire,    227     et 

Sixtus  IV.,  Pope,  64 

seq.:  of   the    Berlin    Philhar- 

Sixtus v..  Pope,  97 

monic   chorus,  228 ;    Verdi's, 

Smith,  J.  C,  134 

228 

Society  of  Chorus  Singers,  the. 

Sebastiani,  99  et  seq. 

79 

Secular  music,  25,  59,  60,  71,  72, 

Society  of  Students,  the,  at  Leip- 

75.  90.  158  et  seq^ 

sic,  162 

Secularization    of   the    Passion, 

Society    of   Dilettanti,    the,    at 

loi ;  of  church  music,  28 

Heilbronn,  163 

'♦  Seasons,  The,"  Haydn's,  140  ; 

Societies  for  the  propagation  of 

first  performance  of,  142  etseq. , 

church  music,  82,  192  et  seq. 

164 

Sol,  40,  42 

Seminaries,  choruses  at  the,  79, 

Sdlfa.  the,  218 

97 

Soliloquies,  the,  100,  103 

248 


Index 


Solmization,  41 ;  origin  of,  based 

♦•  St  Paul,"  Mendelssohn's,  his- 

on ancient  Greek  system,  41, 

tory  of,  147  et  seq.  ;  first  per- 

42;  different  methods  of,  43 

formance  of;  148;    popularity 

Solomon,  the  Song  of,  7 ;  Tem- 

of, 148  ;  Revision  of;  148 

ple  service  under,  7  et  seq. 

St.   Peter's  in  Rome,  choir  of; 

Solos  in  Bach's  Passions,  109 

64 

Songs,     Greek    hymeneal,    11; 

St.  Petersbourg,  156 

spiritual,  79,  80 

St.  Thomas's  Church  in  Leipsic, 

Soprano,  etymology  of,  45 

88  ;  choir  of;  173  et  seq. 

Sopranos,    artificial  male,  55  et 

Stabat  Mater,  sequence,  34   et 

seq. ;    boy,    56 ;    artificial,    in 

seq. 

papal  chapel,  64 ;  Spanish,  55 ; 

Stabat  Maters,   158 ;    Astorga's, 

falsetto,  86 

158 ;     Pergolesi's,    158 ;    Ros- 

" Song  of  Hiawatha,  The,"  Tay- 

sini's, 158 ;  Dvorak's.  158 

lor's.  159 

Stanley,  134 

Spaces   of  stave,   the,  utilized. 

Staudigl,  151 

39 

Stave,  invention  of,  30,  39 ;  per- 

Spanish  singers,  55;    in   papal 

fection    of,    39 ;    masses    and 

chapel,  64 

motets  written  on  one,  53 

•♦Spiritual  Comedy  of  the  Soul, 

Stettin,  165 

The,"  lis 

Stoughton  Musical  Socicty,The, 

Spiritual  songs,  in  Bohemia,  79 ; 

192,  193 

in  Germany,  80 

Stringed    instruments,    suggest 

Spitta,  86,  92 

organum,  35 

Spohr,  144,  182 

♦♦  Sufferings  of  Christ,"  the  Pas- 

♦•St Francis,"  Tinel's,  153 

sion  play,  114 

St.    Gall,    antiphonary   of,    32; 

Swieten,   Baron  von,    136,  140, 

choir  of,  34,  35 

164 

St    George's    Church    of   New 

Syllabic  systems  of  reading  mu- 

York, 200 

sic,  40  et  seq. 

St  John  Passion,  Bach's,  103 

Sylvester,  Pope,  25 

St  Luke  Passion,  Bach's,  103 

St  Mark  Passion,  Bach's,  103 

Tallis,  71 

St  Matthew  Passion,  Bach's,  103, 

"  Tannhauser,"  Wagner's,  152 

105  ;  history  of,  106  et  seq.  ;  its 

Taubert,  Otto,  90 

first  performance,  107  et  seq.^ 

Taylor,  S.  Coleridge,  159 

in 

Te  Deum,  the,  158 

St  Mark's  in  Venice,  75 

Te    Deums,    Handel's    Utrecht 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London, 

and  Dettingen,  ij?,  158  ;  Ber- 

choristers of,  121 

lioz's,  158 

249 


Index 


Telemann,  88 

Tenor,  in  discant,  45,  56 

Tenor  part,  assigned  to  woman, 
196  et  seq. 

Tetrachord,  the,  41 

Theodosius,  Emperor,  closes  Pa- 
gan schools,  26 

Theorbe,  the,  100,  125 

Theorists,  early,  38 

Therapeutae,  9,  22 

Thespis,  12 

Thomas,  Theodore,  206,  aio 

Thomas  of  Celano,  35 

Thomson,  J. ,  140 

Tinel,  153 

Tonality,  modern,  120 

Tone  effects  peculiar  to  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel,  66 

Tonic  Sol-Fa  system,  39,  43  ;  ob- 
jected to  in  England,  43 

"Tower  of  Babel,  The,"  Rubin- 
stein's,  151 

Traditions,  musical,  in  the  early 
Church,  31  ;  violations  pun- 
ished, 33 

Treatises  on  the  organum,  38 ; 
on  measured  music,  48  ;  musi- 
cal, in  America,  190,  194 

Treble,  45 

Triangle,  35 

Trillo  caprino,  33 

Trinity  Chapel,  New  York,  202 

Trinity  Church,  New  York,  198 
et  seq. 

Triplum,  45 

Troubadours,  the,  115 

"  Tuba  mirum "  in  Gossec's 
mass,  156 

Tunes,  new  church,  their  intro- 
duction, 187  et  seq. 


Turbce,  the,  in  the  Passion,  97 ; 
choral  settings  of,  97 ;  charac- 
teristic expression  in,  98 

Turner,  76 

Turner,  Thomas,  plaint  of,  74 

Unaccompanied  choral  music, 

its  study,  173,  215 
Universities,  choruses  established 

in,  79,  87 
University     for    church    music, 

pontifical  chapel,  63 
Ut,  40,  42 
"  Ut  queant  laxis,''  hymn,  40 

Vbrdi,  157,  228 

Viols,  77 

Vishnu,  the  mysteries  of,  92 

Vittoria,  97;  his  choral  settings 
of  the  turbae,  not  dramatic, 
97  et  seq. 

Vocalization,  development  of,  47 

Vogler,  Abbe,  135 

Voices,  classified  by  mediaeval 
composers,  56 ;  modern  classi- 
fication of,  56 

Wagner,  230 

Walther^  89,  98 ;  composer  of 
"  Ein  feste  Burg,"  80;  cantor 
at  Torgau,  81 

•*Walpurgis  Night,"  Mendels- 
sohn's, 159 

Wartburg,  the,  152 

Webb,  Thomas  S.,  195 

Weber,  86,  174 

Western  (Latin)  Church,  22,23,25 

"Western  Harmonist,  The,"  of 
Cincinnati,  205 

Westminster  Abbey,  choristers 
of,  123 


250 


Index 


Wilhelm,  183 

Women    as  chorus  conductors, 

Willaert,  75 

220 

Willichus,  Jodocus,  88 

Worcester,  178,  179 

Wittenberg,  81 

Wurzburg,  206 

Women's     voices     in     Hebrew 

Wycliffe,  69 

choruses,  5,  7  ;   in  early  Chris- 

tian churches,  23,  24  ;   in  Ger- 

Young's Philharmonic  Society, 

man    choirs,    175  ;  in  English 

123 

choirs,    175,    176,      182,    183 ; 

scarcity  of,  183;  in  early  Ameri- 

Zeltbr, 98,  171,  174 

can  choirs,  192;  in  the  Boston 

Zerrahn,  Carl,  198 

Handel  and  Haydn    Society, 

Zion   Church,    New  York,  200, 

196  etseq. 

201 

251 


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